/>

\J (,CL.l*-e^- ^_ ^**i^_ f u . -^

NATURAL HISTORY.

A MANUAL

OF

ZOOLOGY

FOR

SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND THE GENERAL READER.

BY

SANBORN TENNEY, A.M.,

AUTHOR OF "GEOLOGY, ETC.," AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN
VASSAR FEMALE COLLEGE.

Illustrated with over Five Hundred Engravings.

" O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast them made them all : the earth
is full of thy riches." Ps. civ. 24.

NEW YORK:

CHARLES SCRIBNER & CO., 124 GRAND ST.

1865.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by

SANBORN TENNEY,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts,

\

UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, BIGELOW, & Co.,
CAMBRIDGE.

TO

THOSE WHO BELIEVE THAT THE LEADING FACTS AND PRINCIPLES

OF NATURAL HISTORY SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN ALL

THE SCHOOLS OF THIS COUNTRY,

THIS VOLUME

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
BY

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

THIS work is intended to give a general idea of the
Animal Kingdom, especially as it is represented in
North America, and thereby to make the learner ac-
quainted with the leading facts and principles of the
department of Natural History properly called Zoology.
In its preparation, I have freely used all the materials
at my command, but have taken special pains to con-
sult and select from original papers. The general plan
of the work is essentially that of Cuvier, with such modi-
fications as have received the sanction of eminent natu-
ralists. For the special way in which the plan is carried
out, the writer alone is responsible. In treating of the
Mammals, I have followed mainly the writings of Cuvier
and Baird ; of the Birds, those of Baird, Audubon, and
Wilson ; of the Reptiles and Batrachians, those of Hoi-
brook, Agassiz, Baird & Girard ; of Fishes, those of
Cuvier, Storer, and DeKay ; of Insects, those of Harris
and the authors named in connection with each order ;
of Crustaceans, those of Dana ; of Worms, those of Cu-
vier, Agassiz, and Weinland ; of Mollusks, those of Wood-
ward, Gould, and Lea ; of Echinoderms, those of Desor,
Agassiz, and Forbes ; of Acalephs, those of Agassiz ; of

VI PREFACE.

Polyps, those of Dana, Verrill, and Milne-Edwards. Great
prominence is purposely given to the Mammals and
Birds of this country, that all may have at least an
accessible catalogue of these two groups, in which every
one is interested ; the other groups, however, are not
neglected.

The wood-cut illustrations have been designed mainly
from original papers, and from nature, and, with few
exceptions, have not before appeared in hand-books of
natural history. The cuts of the Mammals are mainly
from Schinz, Audubon & Bachman, and Richardson ; of
the Birds, mainly from Audubon and Wilson ; of the
Reptiles and Batrachians, from Holbrook ; of the Fishes,
from Storer, Holbrook, DeKay, and from nature ; of the
Insects, mainly from Harris, Say, Sanborn, and from
nature ; of the Crustaceans, mainly from nature and Re-
ports ; of the Mollusks, from Binney, Woodward, Gould,
Lea, Conrad, and from nature; of the Echinoderms,
from nature, Agassiz, and Miiller ; of the Acalephs, from
Agassiz ; of the Polyps, from Dana, Milne-Edwards, and
Verrill ; of the Protozoa, mainly from Ehrenberg and
Huxley.

The drawings were made with great skill and faith-
fulness by Mr. Edward S. Morse, well known as a natural-
ist, Mr. N. Brown, Mr. E. Burrill, and Mrs. J. W. Dickin-
son. The engraving was done by Messrs. Henry Marsh,
N. Brown, and J. F. Richardson. It is sufficient praise
for Mr. Morse to say, that the Grizzly Bear, Prong-
horn, nearly all of the Mollusks, the Echinoderms, and
many others, were drawn by him ; for Messrs. Burrill

PREFACE. Vll

and Marsh, that the Birds were drawn by the former
and engraved by the latter ; for Mr. Brown, that the
Wapiti, Beaver, Otter, Weasel, Wolverine, Lobster, Aca-
lephs, and many Insects, were both drawn and engraved
by him, and that he also engraved most of the Fishes ;
for Mrs. Dickinson, that the Reptiles and Fishes were
mainly drawn by her ; and for Mr. Richardson, that
he engraved many of the Mammals and Insects, and
all of the Mollusks and Polyps.

I desire to express my sincere thanks to my personal
friends and others who have encouraged and aided me
in this undertaking. To Professor Jeffries Wyman I
am under obligations for information on several im-
portant points, and for the privilege of figuring a beau-
tiful specimen of Astrophyton ; to Professor A. E. Ver-
rill, of Yale College, for aid in selecting the cuts of
the Mammals, for important suggestions, and for read-
ing and criticising the proofs relating to Polyps; to
F. W. Putnam, Esq., Superintendent of the Essex In-
stitute, for reading the proofs relating to the Reptiles
and Fishes, and adding most useful notes on nomen-
clature and other not less important points ; to A. S.
Packard, Jr., M. D., for aid in the classification of In-
sects, and for other favors ; to Samuel H. Scudder, A. M.,
Custodian Boston Society of Natural History, for aid in
selecting the cuts of the Insects, and for reading and
correcting the proofs treating of that group ; to Edward
S. Morse, Esq., for reading the proofs relating to Mollusks,
and for other favors ; and to Professor H. James Clark,
for reading the proofs relating to Acalephs. I would

Vlll PREFACE.

also thank my beloved wife, and Hon. Joseph White,
Professor A. Crosby, Mr. J. Gove, L. R. S. Gove, A. B.,
T. D. Adams, A. M., and Mr. F. G. Sanborn, for special
favors in connection with the work. I am under obli-
gations to Captain Alpheus Hyatt, and the Library of
Harvard College, the Library of the Boston Society of
Natural History, the State Library, the City Library of
Boston, and to Messrs. Piper & Co. of Boston, for the
use of rare books. Nor would I omit to express my
thanks to the gentlemen of the University Press, whose
skill in proof-reading, electrotyping, and printing has
done so much to make the book accurate and attrac-
tive. And I would here thank my Publishers for their
generosity in willingly making the large outlay neces-
sary to issue the work in its present form.

I take this opportunity to say that I shall soon ask
my Publishers to issue another volume on Zoology. It
will contain the same illustrations as the present one,
and will be especially adapted to the wants of Gram-
mar Schools, and to the younger classes of readers.

Hoping that the present work may meet, in some
degree, a want which has long been felt, and aid the
youth and others of our whole country in the delightful
study of Natural History, and thereby advance the cause
of Learning, I submit it to the kind consideration of
the friends of Popular Education.

S. T.

CAMBRIDGE, MASS., August i, 1865.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Page

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT . *

CHAPTER II.

THE BRANCH OF VERTEBRATA, OR VERTEBRATES 6

SECT. I. THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA, OR MAMMALS . 8

Sub-Sect. I. The Order of Bimana, or Man . 9

II. The Order of Quadrumana, or Monkeys . .15

III. The Order of Cheiroptera, or Bats . 23

IV. The Order of Insectivora, or Insect-eaters . 26
V. The Order of Camivora, or Flesh-eaters . 33

VI. The Order of Marsupialia, or Marsupials . 54

VII. The Order of Rodentia, or Gnawers . . 57

VIII. The Order of Edentata, or Edentates . . 82

IX. The Order of Pachydermata, or Pachyderms 86

X. The Order of Ruminantia, or Ruminants . 93

XI. The Order of Cetacea, or Cetaceans . . 109

SECT. II. THE CLASS OF BIRDS 115

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Raptores, or Birds of Prey . 120

II. The Order of Scansores, or Climbers . 143

III. The Order of Insessores, or Perchers . . 154

IV. The Order of Rasores, or Scratchers . . 230
V. The Order of Cursores, or Runners . . 242

VI. The Order of Grallatores, or Waders . 243

VII. The Order of Natatores, or Swimmers . . 264

SECT. III. THE CLASS OF REPTILES ... 285

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Testudinata, or Turtles . . 286

II. The Order of Sauria, Saurians, or Lizards . 293

III. The The Order of Ophidia, or Serpents . 300

SECT. IV. THE CLASS OF BATRACHIA, OR BATRACHIANS 308

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Anoura, or Tailless Batrachians 309

SG7

X CONTENTS.

Page

Sub-Sect II. The Order of Urodela, or Tailed Batrachians 313
III. The Order of Apoda, or Cascilians . .317

SECT. V. THE CLASS OF FISHES 318

Sub-Sect I The Order of Acanthopterygians . . . 326

II. The Order of Abdominal Malacopterygians 341

III. The Order of Sub-brachian Malacopterygians 348

IV. The Order of Apodal Malacopterygians . 351
V. The Order of Lophobranchiates . . 352

VI. The Order of Plectognathes . . . 353

VII. The Order of Sturiones .... 355

VIII. The Order of Plagiostomi, or Selachians . 356

IX. The Order of Cyclostomes, or Suckers . 359

CHAPTER III.

THE BRANCH OF ARTICULATA, OR ARTICULATES . , 361

SECT. I. THE CLASS OF INSECTS 361

Sub-Sect. I. Hymenoptera, or Bees, etc 369

II. Lepidoptera, or Butterflies and Moths . 381

III. Diptera, or Flies, etc 412

IV. Coleoptera, or Beetles .... 420
V. Hemiptera, or. Bugs, etc 435

VI. Orthoptera, or Grasshoppers, etc. . . 443

VII. Neuroptera, or Dragon-Flies, etc. . . 449

VIII. The Order of Arachnida, or Spiders . . 455

IX. The Order of Myriapoda, or Centipedes . 458

SECT. II. THE CLASS OF CRUSTACEA, OR CRUSTACEANS 460

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Decapods .... 461

II. The Order of Tetradecapods . . . 464

III. The Order of Entomostracans . . . 465

SECT. III. THE CLASS OF WORMS 466

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Annelides .... 467

II. The Order of Nematoids .... 468

III. The Order of Trematods . . . .468

CHAPTER IV.

THE BRANCH OF MOLLUSCA, OR MOLLUSKS . . .470

SECT. I. THE CLASS OF CEPHALOPODA, OR CEPHALOPODS 471

Sub- Sect. I. The Order of Dibranchiata .... 472

II, The Order of Tetrabranchiata . . . 475

CONTENTS. XI

Page

SECT. II. THE CLASS OF GASTEROPODA, OR GASTEROPODS 476

Sub-Sect. I. The Order of Gasteropoda proper . . . 477

II. The Order of Heteropoda . . . . 488

III. The Order of Pteropoda . . . .489

SECT. III. THE CLASS OF ACEPHALA, OR ACEPHALS . 489

Sub-Sect. I. The Order of Lamellibranchiata . . . 489

II. The Order of Tunicata, or Ascidians . . 495

III. The Order of Brachiopoda, or Brachiopods . 496

IV. The Order of Bryozoa, or Bryozoans . . 497

CHAPTER V.

THE BRANCH OF RADIATA, OR RADIATES .... 498

SECT. I. THE CLASS OF ECHINODERMATA . . . 498

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Holothurioids, or Holothurians 499

II. The Order of Echinoids, or Sea-Urchins . 500

III. The Order of Asterioids, or Star-Fishes . 503

IV. The Order of Ophiurioids, or Ophiurans . 504
V. The Order of Crinoids .... 505

SECT. II. THE CLASS OF ACALEPHS, OR JELLY-FISHES . 506

Sub-Sect I. The Order of Ctenophorae, or Beroid Medusae 508

II. The Order of Discophorse, or Medusae proper 509

III. The Order of Hydroidre, or Hydroids . . 512

SECT. III. THE CLASS OF POLYPI, OR POLYPS . . . 517

Sub-Sect. I. The Order of Alcyonaria . . . .519

II. The Order of Actinaria .... 522

III. The Order of Madreporaria .... 524

CHAPTER VI.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS . . 529

CHAPTER VII.

CONCLUDING REMARKS 533

INDEX 536

ENGRAVINGS, TITLES, ETC.

WITH comparatively few exceptions, the animals figured in this work are
American.

The Ruminants are drawn approximately one thirty-second of their nat-
ural dimensions ; the Rodents, from about one twelfth, as in the Beaver,
Porcupine, Pouched Gopher, &c., to one fourth, as in the Squirrels; the
Cheiroptera and Insectivora, generally from about one fifth to one fourth;
the Cetaceans, from one hundredth to one fiftieth ; and the other Mammals,
with few exceptions, about one sixteenth.

The Birds of Prey, Waders, and Swimming Birds are drawn about one
eighth of their natural dimensions ; all the other Birds about one fourth.

The Reptiles, varying so much in size, are represented on different scales ;
but as the dimensions of each are given in the text near the cut, no misap-
prehension of size need occur. The same is true of Fishes ; but in both
these classes, however, the smallest species are represented as small as con-
venient and the larger species as large as convenient, and the intermediate
ones graded as well as possible between the two.

The Invertebrates Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates are drawn
natural size ; except where the size is indicated by a line beside the cut,
or the scale of the reduction is marked by the words "one half," "one
third," &c., under the cut ; or where, as in the case of the Lobster and a
few others, the size is so evident from the context that no mistake can arise
from the omission of the words or figures indicating the reduction. The
Protozoa, however, excepting the Sponges, are highly magnified.

For the running title on each left-hand page the English names of the
Branch and Class under consideration are given ; on each right-hand page,
generally the scientific names of the Order and Family. These, with the
Index containing the names of the principal groups, and the more impor-
tant genera and species, will enable the reader to find every subject with
facility.

The authority for the name generally follows each Species ; in some cases
the authority for the generic name is also given ; and in Insects proper,
that for each Family. The abbreviations of the authorities are generally
the same as in works which the student may have occasion to consult.

GOOD BOOKS FOR REFERENCE : Cuvier's Animal Kingdom ; Baird's Mammals of

Holbrook's North American Herpetology ; all of the Smithsonian Natural History Publi-
cations ; Natural History Reports of the different States; Storer's Fishes of Massachu-
setts ; Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation ; Boisduval and Le Conte's North American
Butterllies ; Say's American Entomology; Kirby and Spence's Entomology; Westwood's
Classification of Insects ; Rennie's Insect Architecture ; Jour, and Proceed, of the Phil.
Acad of Nat. Sci. : Annals of the New York Lyceum of Nat. Hist. ; Jour, and Proceed,
of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. ; Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoology; Proceed, of the Essex
Institute; Trans. Acad. of. St. Louis; Dana's Crustacei ; Woodward's Manual of the
Mollusca; Lea's Conchology ; Binney's Terrestrial Mollusks; Gould's Invertebrata of
Massachusetts; Morse's Terrestrial Pulmonifera of Maine; Forbes's British Star-Fishes ;
Agassiz's Contributions to the Natural History of the United States ; Dana's Zoophytes ;
Verrill's Revision of the Polyps of the Coast of the United States ; Dana's Classification
ot Animals based on the Principle of Cephalization ; Dana's Coral Reefs and Islands;
Darwin's Coral Reefs ; Guyot's works on Physical Geology ; and Todd's Cyclopaedia.

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT.

NATURAL History is the science which treats of the
earth and all natural objects upon its surface and within
its crust.

Zoology is the department of Natural History which
treats of animals. It embraces the study of their forms,
structure, development, habits, names, classification, geo-
graphical distribution, and the relations which animals
lower than himself sustain to Man, the highest represent-
ative of the Animal Kingdom.

This science has been established and brought to its
present high state of perfection through the labors of
such masters as Aristotle, Linnaeus, Cuvier, and others
scarcely less renowned.

Zoology is a science of the highest importance, not
only on account of its direct practical relations to the
material interests of human society, and its inseparable
connection with the great problems of Geology, but espe-
cially as an educational branch, securing to its true
votaries a spirit of earnest inquiry, habits of accurate
observation and careful comparison, vigorous and logical
thought, and power of broad generalization ; and deal-
ing, as it does, with the highest expressions of matter

2 STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT.

and of life, its study is eminently adapted to enlarge our
ideas of creation and its Great Author. It makes known
to us the Plan of Creation, as exhibited in the highest
department of nature ; and thus we are led to know
more of Him who suffers not even a sparrow to fall with-
out his notice.

The Animal Kingdom comprises all organized bodies
endowed with sensation and voluntary motion, --that is,
all organized bodies except plants. In addition to sen-
sation and voluntary motion, which depend upon special
systems of organs peculiar to animals, the nervous sys-
tem and the muscular system under its influence, there
are also other characteristics which belong exclusively
to members of the Animal Kingdom, and which show
still further the differences between them and plants.
All, or nearly all, animals possess a more or less well-
defined digestive cavity, and most of them other well-
defined cavities, which have special functions, or which
contain organs which have special functions. In plants,
the organs for special purposes are not concentrated
and placed in well-defined cavities, but are more or less
distributed over the body. Animals feed directly upon
plants, or upon other animals that feed upon plants.
Vegetation, on the contrary, is nourished by the mineral
kingdom. It is the chief province of the vegetable king-
dom to convert mineral substances earth and gases
into food upon which animals can subsist. In animals,
the food is received at once into the digestive cavity,
whence, after proper elaboration, it traverses and nour-
ishes the whole body. In plants, most of the fluids trav-
erse the whole extent of the body and branches before
reaching the foliage, where the process of elaboration is
carried on. In respiration, animals consume oxygen, and
give off carbonic acid, a gas poisonous, and, when abun-
dant, destructive to animal life ; while plants consume

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 3

carbonic acid, and give off oxygen, so essential to ani-
mals. All animals are developed from more or less
spherical eggs ; plants from seeds, or something analo-
gous to seeds ; and the mode of development, and the
extent to which growth goes on, are essentially different
in the two cases.

It was stated above, that all animals are endowed with
sensation. Some, the lowest, have only general sensibil-
ity ; while others, and all the higher ones, are also en-
dowed with special kinds of sensation, called special
senses, of which there are five in number, the sense
of sight, of hearing, of smell, of taste, and of touch,
and dependent upon special organs.

The natural divisions of the Animal Kingdom are
Branches or Types, Classes, Orders, Families, Genera,
and Species. That is, the animal kingdom is divided
into branches, each branch into classes, each class into
orders, each order into families, each family into genera,
each genus into species, the latter group being composed
of individuals essentially alike. These divisions are not
the contrivance of man, but exist in nature. According
to Agassiz,

Branches are characterized by plan of structure,

Classes, by the manner in which that plan is executed,
as far as ways and means are concerned,

Orders, by the complication of that structure,

Families, by form,

Genera, by details of execution in special parts,

Species, by the relation of individuals to one another,
and to the world in which they live, as well as by the
proportion of their parts, their ornamentation, &c.

That is, certain characters determine the Branch, cer-
tain others determine the Class, others the Order, others
the Family, others the Genus, and others still the Spe-
cies. These principles of classification, however, are not

4 STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT.

as yet generally recognized and fully applied ; but most
writers designate at least the subordinate groups by a
combination of characteristics more or less different in
their nature.

The number of species of animals is not known, but
may safely be estimated as high as a million, or even
more, of which the small and microscopic comprise an
immense majority.

Cuvier has shown that the animal kingdom comprises
four great Branches or Types, Vertebrata, Articulata,
Mollusca, and Radiata. All the animals in any one of
these branches are constructed upon the same plan.

The Branch of Vertebrata comprises all animals which
have an internal skeleton with a backbone for an axis.
Man and all the higher animals belong to this branch.

The Branch of Articulata comprises all animals whose
bodies are made up of similar rings or segments, placed
transversely to the longitudinal axis ; and whose parts
which correspond to a skeleton are external. All In-
sects, Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, and Worms belong to
this branch.

The Branch of Mollusca comprises soft-bodied animals,
such as Cuttle-fishes, Squids, Snails, Mussels, Oysters,
and Clams.

The Branch of Radiata comprises animals whose parts
are more or less symmetrically arranged around a verti-
cal axis. Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, Crinoids, Jelly-fishes,
Coral animals, and Sea-anemones belong to this branch.

Baer has shown that for each of these branches there
is a special mode of development in the egg. In Ver-
tebrates the germ divides into two folds, one turning
upward and the other downward. In Articulates, the
germ lies with its back portion upon the yolk, and ab-
sorbs the latter into that part of the body. In Mol-
lusks, the germ lies upon the yolk, and absorbs the latter

STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 5

into the under surface of the body. In Radiates, the
germ occupies the whole periphery of the sphere.

Of the four branches of the Animal Kingdom, the
Vertebrates are unquestionably the highest in rank, and
the Radiates lowest ; while of the other two it is not
easy to say which, on the whole, is the higher, and which
the lower branch. And here a word of explanation is
due in regard to the rank of animals.

In one sense, all animals are alike perfect. Each is
perfectly adapted to fulfil its own peculiar office in the
great economy of nature. In this sense, every animal is
perfect. But in regard to organization there is every
grade, from those of the most extreme simplicity, and
with the most simple functions, to those of the highest
possible complication, and with the most numerous, va-
ried, and complicated functions. Now an animal is
higher according to its higher complication of structure,
and hence more numerous and varied functions.

In the subsequent pages we examine somewhat care-
fully these four branches of the Animal Kingdom, taking
them in the order named above. One chapter is de-
voted to each Branch, one section to each Class, one
sub-section to each Order. Paragraphs marked with
small capitals introduce each Family. The Genera are
given in italics, the popular name of Species in ordi-
nary type, and the scientific name immediately follows
in italics.

CHAPTER II.

THE BRANCH OF VERTEBRATA, OR VERTEBRATES.

THE Vertebrata embrace all animals which have a
bony or cartilaginous axis, called the spinal column,
with an elongated cavity above it, containing the great
nervous centre, the brain and spinal cord, and an-
other below it, containing the organs of respiration, di-
gestion, circulation, and reproduction. From the brain
and spinal cord branch the nerves, in the form of threads,
to every part of the body. In all the Vertebrates the
skeleton is internal, and constitutes the frame upon
which the muscles are placed, the skin, with its appen-
dages, covering the whole. The axis of the
skeleton is made up of parts, which are more
or less movable upon one another. Each of
these parts is called a vertebra, and hence
the axis is often called the vertebral axis, or
vertebral column, as well as spinal column and

A Vertebra.

backbone.

All Vertebrates have red blood, which is propelled
through the system by a muscular heart The mouth
is furnished with two jaws, usually armed with teeth,
which are more or less bony, and often enamelled.
Vertebrates exhibit perfect bilateral symmetry, that is,
the organs are arranged in pairs on the two sides of the
body. The eyes are two, ears two, and the locomotive
appendages never exceed four. The animals of this

VERTEBRATES.

Arm of Man.

Arm of Goriiia.

Wing of Bat

Leg of Mole-

Leg of Dog.

Leg of Turtle.

Fin of Fish.

8 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS.

branch are characterized by higher intelligence than
those of any other. Vertebrates comprise five * classes,
Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fishes.
Many writers group the Batrachians and Reptiles to-
gether, and give the latter name to the class, thus mak-
ing the classes only four in number. In all these
the fundamental idea of a Vertebrate is plainly mani-
fested, and the principal parts of the skeleton corre-
spond, part to part, head to head, spinal column to spinal
column, locomotive members to locomotive members,
the members in each case modified according to the
function to be performed, whether it be that of standing,
or grasping, or walking, or running, or leaping, or spring-
ing, or flying, or creeping, or swimming, but the general
plan always the same. Figures 2-12, where corre-
sponding parts are marked by the same letter, show
clearly that the anterior locomotive members of differ-
ent Vertebrates are expressions of one and the same fun-
damental idea.

SECTION I.

THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA, OR MAMMALS.

THE Class of Mammalia comprises all Vertebrates
which bring forth their young alive, and nourish them
with milk from their own bodies. They are all furnished
with a solid skeleton, which is divided into well-defined
regions, as the head, trunk, and extremities ; the upper
jaw is fixed to the cranium, the lower formed of only two
pieces ; the teeth are enamelled, and the neck, with few
exceptions, has only seven vertebrae. The brain is com-

* Agassiz, in his "Essay on Classification," recognizes eight classes in
the Branch of Vertebrates, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians,
Selachians, Ganoids, Fishes proper, and Myzontes.

MAN. 9

posed of two hemispheres, and a muscular diaphragm
separates the cavity of the chest from that of the ab-
domen. They all breathe air by means of lungs ; the
blood is warm, and their circulatory system consists of a
heart with four cavities, arteries which carry the blood
from the heart to all parts of the body, veins which con-
duct the blood back to the heart, and capillary vessels
which connect the termination of the arteries with the
beginning of the veins. The nose of mammals forms
part of the face ; the eyes are protected by two lids,
which are generally furnished with eyelashes ; the ears
are composed of three parts ; and they are all endowed
with vocal organs. Mammals are the highest in rank
of all the animals of the globe. The number of spe-
cies is about two thousand, distributed among the follow-
ing orders : Bimana, or Man ; Quadrumana, or Monkeys ;
Cheiroptera, or Bats ; Insectivora, or Insect-eaters ; Car-
nivora, or Flesh-eaters ; Marsupialia, or Marsupials ; *
Rodentia, or Gnawers ; Edentata, or Edentates ; Pachy-
dermata,f or Pachyderms ; Ruminantia, or Ruminants ;
and Cetacea, or Cetaceans.

SUB-SECTION I.

THE ORDER OF BIMANA, OR MAN.

THE structure of Man is essentially the same in kind
as that of other mammals, differing only or mainly in de-
gree ; yet the degrees of difference separate him widely
from all other animals, and place him in an order by
himself, and far above all other organized beings. He is
the only animal to which the erect position is natural ;

* Marsupials are now considered as a Sub-Class parallel with other mam-
malian quadrupeds. In fact, Cuvier so regarded them, but treated them as
an Order.

f Many modern systematists unite the Pachyderms and Ruminants in one
Order, called Herbivores, or Plant-eaters.

IO

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Skeleton of Man.
cv, cervical vertebrae; sc cl, scapula and cla-

carpus; ///, phalanges ; fe, femur; t, tibia;/
fibula ; is, tarsus ; mi, metatarsus ; ps, phalanges.

his whole organization
is adapted to that atti-
tude. His brain is the
largest in the Animal
Kingdom, excepting on-
ly that of the elephant
and of the whale, and
in its organization is
far superior to that of
any other animal. His
face is a model of beau-
ty, and endowed with a
wonderful power of ex-
pression. The hand of
man is superior in its
structure and in its func-
tions to the correspond-
ing member of any oth-
er animal. Man alone
truly speaks a language.
Even physically consid-
ered, he is the highest
possible expression of a
vertebrate. But Man is
the highest represent-
ative of the Animal
Kingdom, not only on

aCCOUllt of hlS Superior
r , . . . ,

form and higher phys-

ical organization, but, above all, on account of those high
mental and spiritual endowments which belong to him
alone, and which enable him to understand and appre-
ciate the wonderful and sublime harmonies of the ma-
terial and moral world, and his own relations to the
Author of Nature and of Revelation.

MAN.

II

Fig. 14.

Pre-molars. Canine.

Human Teeth.

Fig. 15.

Incisors.

Molars.

While each species
of the lower animals
is limited to a given
region or country, and
in many cases can-
not survive a remov-
al, Man's home is
the whole earth, he
alone is truly cosmop-
olite. But while Man
is found in all zones
and climates, he dif-
fers greatly both in
his physical and men-
tal nature in different
regions. In the ex-
amination of vegeta-
ble life, and life as
revealed in animals
lower than Man, we
find that both reach
their highest expres-
sion in the hot regions.

Not SO with Man. It Nervous System of Man.

Is not in the moist, , cerebrum, or principal brain, called the hemi-
r , spheres ; t, cerebellum, or smaller brain ; c, spinal

warm air of the trop- cord giving off its branches of nerves .

12 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

ics, where all his wants are supplied by the spontaneous
productions of the soil, nor in the frigid regions, where
he wages a constant warfare with nature to secure food
and clothing, that Man appears in his highest stage of
development ; but it is in the temperate regions that he
reaches his highest expression physically, mentally, and
morally. Ethnologists recognize three principal varieties,
or types, of Man, each having certain characteristics not
possessed by the others, the Caucasian, the Mongo-
lian, and the Ethiopian. Besides these, there are the
Malayan and the American, which are regarded as sub-
ordinate types, and derived from the Mongolian. With
this explanation, we may regard the human family as
composed of five types, or races, the Caucasian, Mon-
golian, Ethiopian, Malayan, and American.

The Caucasian race occupies Europe, except Lapland
and Finnland, Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa, Ice-
land, and the United States. The Caucasian type is
characterized by a round or oval head, smooth skull, ver-
tical and symmetrical features, fair complexion, ample
beard, and medium stature. The facial angle varies from
75 to about 90, and the capacity of the skull from 75 to
109 cubic inches. The Caucasians are possessed of a
considerable degree of muscular strength, energy, and
endurance, and in many cases these exist in a marked
degree of superiority. They are more beautiful in per-
son, and exhibit higher intelligence and refinement, than
any other race. They are represented in Southwestern
Asia by the Hindoos, Persians, and Syro-Arabians ; in
Europe by the Teutonians, who inhabit Iceland, Scan-
dinavia, Germany, the eastern and southeastern portions
of Scotland, the eastern part of England, and the north-
eastern part of Ireland ; and by the Celts, who inhabit
Western and Southern Europe, including most of Scot-
land and Ireland, Wales, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy,

MAN. 13

and adjacent islands ; and by the Slavonians, who in-
habit Turkey, part of Prussia, Poland, and Russia.

The Mongolian race embraces the inhabitants of Cen-
tral, Eastern, and Northern Asia, the Laplanders and
Finnlanders of Europe, and the Esquimaux of Greenland
and North America. The Mongolian type is character-
ized by a broad head, angular face, oblique eyes, tawny
skin, rough, straight hair, scanty beard, rather low stature,
long body, and short extremities. The facial angle is
from 70 to 80, and the capacity of the skull from 69
to 73 cubic inches. The Mongolians have less physical
strength and energy, and less mental power, than the
Caucasians. They are shrewd, crafty, insincere, obsti-
nate, cruel to vanquished foes, and contented with a sta-
tionary civilization.

The Ethiopian race embraces the inhabitants of Africa
south of the Tropic of Cancer, together with their de-
scendants in the United States. The Ethiopian type is
characterized by an elongated, narrow cranium, crisp,
curly hair, projecting jaws, thick lips, and black or dusky
skin. The true Negroes of Western and Central Africa,
and the Caffres and Hottentots of Southern Africa, are
two prominent divisions of the Ethiopian race. The
Negroes, in addition to the characteristics just men-
tioned, have the skull thick and heavy, the facial angle
from 65 to 70, the mouth wide, face narrow and lower
part greatly projecting, the chin retracted, eyes promi-
nent, iris black, and the vessels of the eye suffused with
a bilious tinge. Their beard is scanty, and chiefly con-
fined to the point of the chin. The body is muscular,
strong, and symmetrical. The bones of the forearm are
somewhat elongated, the shin-bones slightly bent forward,
the calves placed high up, the feet broad and heavy, the
soles flat, and the heel bone considerably projecting.
They can endure hard and protracted labor under a

14 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

broiling sun, and in marshy districts, where other races
would sink under disease. They are patient, honest, and
passionately fond of simple melodies.

The Caffres have the cranium higher and more round-
ed, the jaws less prominent, and the nose less depressed,
than the true Negroes, and the skin varies from dark
brown to clear yellowish brown. The Hottentots are
low in stature, the head is flatter and the body less ath-
letic than in the Caffre, and the color is brownish-yellow,
besides various other marked peculiarities.

The Malayan race extends from Madagascar on the
west to Easter Island in the Pacific, and from the island
of Formosa to New Zealand. Within these limits there
are two or three well-marked divisions of the inhabitants,
the Malays proper, the Papuans, and the Australians. .

The Malayan type proper is characterized by a rather
small head, with a capacity of 64 to 89 cubic inches, the
dome of the skull high and rounded, the forehead low,
face broad and flat, cheek-bones high, nose short and ex-
panded, but not flat, mouth wide, upper jaws projecting,
angle of lower jaw very prominent, the auditory open-
ing placed high up, and the orbital ridges prominent and
overhanging. The Malayans are short and robust, the
skin varies from clear brown to dark olive and bright
yellow, the hair is black, straight, shining, generally
rough, and the beard scanty. The Malay proper is
treacherous, ferocious, and implacable. The more civil-
ized indulge in narcotics to great excess, and the more
savage in cannibalism and piracy.

The Papuans constitute the sole inhabitants of New
Guinea and the smaller islands immediately adjacent.
They so much resemble the Negroes and Caffres that
they are popularly known as the Papuan Negroes. The
native Australians are characterized by a spare form,
a marked lankness of the limbs, large head, projecting

QUADRUMANA. 15

brows, broad nose, wide mouth, straight, dark hair, and
a skin varying from chocolate-brown to black. The
Australians and Papuans may truly be considered among
the lowest specimens of the human family.

The American race includes all the aboriginal inhab-
itants of America except the Esquimaux. The native
American head resembles that of the Mongolian, but is
more rounded than the latter .; the forehead is low and
narrow, cheek-bones high, the hair straight and black,
the body of good size and well-proportioned, and the
complexion copper-colored. The members of this race
are active, but not capable of long-continued hard labor.
Though some tribes exhibit a good deal of ingenuity, as
a race they have never made much progress in the arts
of civilized life.

r

SUB-SECTION II.

THE ORDER OF QUADRUMANA, OR MONKEYS.

THE Order of Ouadrumana comprises all animals pop-
ularly known as apes, baboons, and monkeys. As the
name indicates, they have their four extremities hand-
like, the fingers being long and flexible, and the thumb
opposable to the fingers. Some of the animals of this
order bear a general resemblance to the members of the
human family ; but there are the widest differences be-
tween the highest of the Quadrumana and Man, even
when physically considered. The erect posture is natural
to Man ; not so with any of the Quadrumana. Although
some of them may stand, and even walk, somewhat erect,
it is an unnatural and insecure position, the foot then
resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis
being unfavorable to an equilibrium. Their so-called
hands, it is true, resemble human hands ; but although
admirably adapted to grasping and climbing, they are

i6

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

t6 - vastly inferior to the

perfect hand of Man
indelicate structure
and functions. In
many species the
face presents some-
thing human -like
in appearance ; but
the elongated muz-
zle in most cases
reminds us rather
of the quadrupeds.
The Ouadrumana
are generally self-
ish, crafty, mali-
cious, and thievish.
Many species are
docile, and can be
trained to perform
remarkable feats ;
but none have ever
been trained to ren-
der useful service
for man. They in-
habit the warm re-
gions of both hemi-
spheres, and are most numerous on the wooded table-
lands. They may be divided into three families, the
Simiadse, or Simiae catarrhinas, comprising all the true
monkeys of the Eastern Hemisphere ; the Cebidae, or
Simiae platyrrhinae, comprising all the monkeys of Amer-
ica ; and the Lemuridae, comprising monkey-like animals,
which are known under the name of Makis, and which
are found most numerous in Madagascar.

SIMIAD/E, OR OLD-WORLD MONKEYS. The Old- World

Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoff.

QUADRUMANA.

monkeys proper, that is, all except the Lemuridse, are
characterized by oblique nostrils, which are near to-
gether, a human-like system of teeth, thirty-two in num-
ber, by the presence of cheek-pouches in many species,
and by the absence in all cases of a prehensile tail.
They comprise the highest of the Quadrumana, or those
which bear the closest resemblance to Man, and may be
divided into two groups, according to the absence or
presence of a tail.

i. Tailless or Anthropoid Apes. The members of this
group have no cheek-pouches, no callosities, and their
fore legs or arms are much longer than the hind ones.
The Genera are Troglodytes, including the Chimpanzee
and Gorilla, and Simia, which includes the Orang-
Outang, and Hylobatcs, including the Gibbons.

The Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoffrey, of tropical West-
ern Africa, is four to five feet high when erect, cov-
ered with dark hair,
lives in troops, con-
structs huts of leaves
and branches, arms it-
self with clubs and
stones, and thus re-
pulses the attacks of
man and other ene-
mies. When domesti-
cated, the Chimpanzee
learns to walk, sit, and
eat like a human be-
ing.

The Gorilla, T. gorilla, Savage, of tropical Western
Africa, is five to six feet high, and its heavy frame, large
and powerful jaws, wary and ferocious disposition, and
gigantic muscular strength, render it one of the most for-
midable of all the apes.

Skull of Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoff.

18

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Orang-Outang, 5. satyrus, Linnaeus, of Borneo
and vicinity, is about five feet high when erect, and is
covered with coarse, red hair ; the face is bluish, and
the hind thumbs are very short compared with the
toes. Its home is among the trees, and it has the

habit of weav-
A ing branches

together in or-
der to form a
resting-place.

The leading
characteristic
of Genus Hy-
lobatcs Long-
armed Apes, or
Gibbons is
very long arms,
reaching even
to the ground,
when the ani-
mal is stand-
ing erect. The
Gibbons rarely
exceed four feet
in height, and
inhabit the se-
cluded parts of
India and the
Eastern Archi-
pelago.

2. Tailed Monkeys of the Old World. The Genus
Semnopithecus Solemn Apes is characterized by a
long, slender body, and long, slender, straight tail, and
by the absence of cheek-pouches. The solemn apes are
remarkable for their mildness of disposition and great

Orang-Outang, .. satyrus, Linn.

QUADRUMANA.

Kahau, S. nasica, Schr.

intelligence. They belong to Asia and the Asiatic Archi-
pelago.

The Kahau, 5. nasica, Schr., is celebrated for its ex-
tremely long nose. Fig. 19.

The Genus Prcsbytis is repre-
sented by the Tailed Gibbon, which
inhabits Sumatra.

The Genus Cercopithecus Gue-
nons is characterized by a mod-
erately prominent muzzle, long tail,
and the last of the inferior molars
with tubercles like the rest. The
species are numerous, and of great
variety of size and color. They live
in troops, and commit great havoc in gardens and culti-
vated fields. They are easily tamed.

The Genus Colubtts Thumbless Apes comprises a
few African species closely related to the solemn apes.

The Genus Macacus Macacos is characterized by
a fifth tubercle on their last molars, and their limbs are
shorter and thicker and muzzle more projecting than in
the Guenons.

The Genus Inuns comprising the Barbary Ape
differs from the Macacos mainly in having a small tuber-
cle instead of a tail. This ape inhabits the precipitous
sides of the Rock of Gibraltar.

The Genus Cynoccphalus
Baboons is characterized by
a dog-like muzzle. The Ba-
boons are mainly inhabitants
of Africa and the Philippine
Islands, and are large, fero-
cious, and dangerous ani-
mals. They are essentially
constructed to live upon the ground, and are inferior to

Fig. 20.

Skull of Baboon.
Cynocephalus.

2O VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

the preceding apes and monkeys, approaching more
nearly ordinary quadrupeds. They are known as Dog-
headed Monkeys and Mandrills.

CEBID.E, OR NEW- WORLD MONKEYS. This group com-
prises the monkeys of the New World, in all ninety-one
species. They are characterized by a more or less rounded
head, by nostrils opening on the sides of the nose and
wide apart, by thirty-six teeth, and in many cases by a
long prehensile tail, and by the absence of cheek-pouches
and callosities ; they are in general smaller and less fero-
cious than those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and as a
whole seem to be inferior to them. They inhabit almost
the whole territory from Central America to 35 or 38
south latitude. Only one species, however, is found west
of the Andes.

The prehensile tail of these monkeys is capable of
being twisted firmly around branches of trees, and some
species are thus able to sustain the entire weight of the
body. The tail is also sensitive, and thus becomes both
an organ of feeling and prehension, enabling the pos-
sessor to obtain small objects which are in situations
where the hand cannot be inserted.

i. Sapajous, or those with a prehensile tail.

The Genus Mycctes Howlers is prominent among
the New-World monkeys, and found throughout the
whole length of the territory occupied by the Ameri-
can monkey tribes. Howlers have the head pyramidal,
and are provided with a vocal apparatus by which they
produce the loudest and most frightful yells or howls,
often making night hideous. These monkeys are mostly
of large size, three feet long, with a tail about as long
as the body, and they are more ferocious than any other
American species.

The Genus Atelcs Spider Monkeys comprises those
which inhabit chiefly Brazil and Guiana, and which are

QUADRUMANA.

21

Spider Monkey, A . bclzebutk, Briss.

mild, timid, and slow in their Fig - 2I -

movements. They take their

name from their long and

sprawling legs, and correspond

to the Semnopitheci of Asia

and the Colubi of Africa.

The Genus LagotJirix com-
prises the Gluttonous Mon-
keys of the interior of South
America.

The Genus Cebus Weepers
comprises monkeys which
derive their name from their plaintive cry. They are
mild in disposition, quick in their movements, and easily
tamed. This genus is the richest of all in species, and is
most fully represented in Guiana and Brazil.

2. The Sagouins, or Sakis, or those with non-prehen-
sile tails.

The Genus Pithecia comprises the Fox-tailed Monkeys,
so called from their long and bushy tails.

The Genus Callithrix comprises the Squirrel Monkeys,
which are of small size and prettily colored. They are
found chiefly on the banks of the Orinoco.

The Genus Nyctipithecus comprises the Night-Monkeys,
characterized by their large nocturnal
eyes.

The Genera Hapale and Midas com-
prise diminutive monkeys of an agree-
able form, and known respectively as
Ouistitis also as Jacchus and Tam-
arins. The term Marmoset is also ap-
plied to the members of both genera.
They have the tail longer than the
body, the fur long and bushy, soft, and

c , ...... . ~, Marmoset, H. chrysome-

ot beautilul and brilliant colors. 1 ney lait p r .

Fig. 22.

22

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 23.

live chiefly in Brazil, but extend also to the northern
countries of South America.

LEMURID^E, OR MAKIS. This group comprises Quad-
rumana which differ from the true monkey tribes both
in their more general resemblance to ordinary quadru-
peds, and in their teeth ; and their first hind finger is
armed with a pointed raised nail. The Lemuridae com-
prise all the Quadrumana of Madagascar and adjacent
islands. They are also found in Central and West-
ern Africa, Southern Asia, and in the Indian Archipel-
ago.

The Genus Lemur Lemurs or Makis proper com-
prises those which have six inci-
sors in the lower jaw, compressed
and slanting forward ; four in the
upper that are straight, the canines
trenchant, six molars on each side
above, and six on each side below.
These belong wholly to Madagas-
car and vicinity, and feed upon
fruit.

The Genus Indris comprises those
which have only four teeth in the
lower jaw. The only species in-
habits Madagascar. It is tamed,
and used like a hound.
The Genus Loris has sharper points to the grinders,
the body slender, the tail wanting, and the eyes near
together. The Lorises live in the East Indies, are noc-
turnal, and feed upon insects.

The Genera Galago Galagos of Africa, and Tar-
sins Tarsiers of the Moluccas, are distinguished from
other Lemuridae by elongated tarsi, tufted tail, large
eyes and ears. They are nocturnal, and feed upon in-
sects.

Lemur, L. catta, Linn.

CHEIROPTERA.

Fig. 24.

The Genus GalcopitJiccus Flying Lemurs, so called
is placed here by De Blainville and others. The Galeo-
pitheci are closely related to the Bats, but differ from
the latter by the fingers of the for-
ward extremities being furnished
with trenchant nails, which are no
longer than those of the feet, so that
the membrane which occupies the
spaces between them, and which is
continued as far as the tail, can per-
form no other functions than those
of a parachute. Hence they can-
not properly fly, but are able, by
the sustaining membrane, to make
leaps of several hundred feet in ex-
tent. They live on trees in the In-
dian Archipelago, and feed upon insects, and probably
fruits to some extent.

Galeopithecus.

SUB-SECTION III.

THE ORDER OF CHEIROPTERA, OR BATS.

The Order of Cheiroptera comprises mammals whose
distinguishing characteristic consists in a fold of skin
which, commencing at the sides of the neck, and extend-
ing between the four members and fingers of the anterior
extremities, supports the animal in the air, and enables
it to fly. In most cases they have the arms, forearms,
and fingers excessively long, forming, with the membrane
mentioned above, true wings of great extent of surface,
so that they are able to fly long and rapidly, and execute
movements as varied and complicated as those of birds.
Their eyes are excessively small, ears generally large,
thumbs short and armed with a sharp hooked claw, hind
feet weak and divided into five toes armed with trenchant

24 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS.

and pointed nails. They are nocturnal in their habits,
and during the day remain in caves, hollow trees, or
other dark places, suspended by their hooks, or by the
nails of their hind feet. In cold and temperate regions
they pass the winter in a state of lethargy. Although
their eyes are so small, their large ears and broad wings
possess such a delicate sensibility that bats are enabled
to fly unharmed through the most winding and compli-
cated passages, and that, too, after their eyes have been
destroyed. Bats may be divided into two great groups.

1. Frugivorous Bats, or Rousettes, have trenchant in-
cisors in each jaw, grinders with flat crowns, and feed
chiefly upon fruit, but also capture birds and small quad-
rupeds. About forty species are known, inhabiting
mainly the East Indies and tropical Africa. They are
the largest of the bats, and the flesh of some is used for
food. The Genus Pteropus is the principal one.

The Black Rousette, P. edulis, Geoff., of the Straits
of Sunda and the Moluccas, is of a blackish-brown color,
and measures nearly four feet between the extremities of
the wings. Its loud cry resembles that of the goose.

2. Insectivorous Bats have three grinders on each side
in each jaw, bristled with conical points, that are preceded
by a variable number of false molars. About two hun-
dred species are known.

The Genus PJiyllostoma Vampires is characterized
by a membrane in the form of a leaf, which is reflected
crosswise on the end of the nose. They belong wholly
to tropical America, and have the reputation of inflicting
severe wounds upon men and animals, which they bite in
order to suck their blood.

The Vampire Bat, P. spectrum, Linn., is of the size
of a magpie, reddish brown, and has the leaf in the form
of a funnel.

The Genus Vespcrtilio Common Bats has the muz-

CHEIROPTERA. 25

zle without leaf or other appendages, the incisors two to
four above, six beneath, and the tail involved in the mem-
brane. This is the most numerous genus of all, its spe-
cies being found in all parts of the world. A half-dozen
or more North American bats are usually referred to this
genus.

The Red Bat, V. noveboracensis, Linn., is three to four
inches long, with a spread of wings of ten to twelve
inches ; color reddish tawny.

The Hoary Bat, V.
pruinosus, Say, is over
four and a half inches
long, the spread over
fifteen inches ; color
grayish above, the

throat with a fawn-
Hoary Bat, V. pruinosus, Say.

colored band.

The Little Brown Bat, V. snbulatus, Say, is over three
inches long, the spread nine inches ; color olive-brown
above, grayish beneath.

The Silver-Haired Bat, V. noctivagans, Le Conte, is
about three and a half inches long, spread ten to eleven
inches ; the color black, with a whitish collar across the
shoulders.

The Carolina Bat, V, carolincnsis, Geoff., is nearly four
inches long, the spread twelve inches, and the color chest-
nut.

V. monticole, Bach., of a fulvous color, and V. virginia-
mis, Bach., sooty brown, are additional species, from Vir-
ginia.

The Genus Molossus, comprising M. cynoccphalus and
M. fuliginosns, Cooper, of the Southern States, is char-
acterized by a large head and muzzle, canines two to four
in the upper jaw, none in the lower, and bifid upper in-
cisors.

2

26 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS.

The Genus Plecotus, comprising P. Lccontii of the
Southern States and P. Townsendii of Oregon, is char-
acterized by greatly dilated ears, and by two fleshy crests
between the eyes and nostrils.

The rapid flittings, turnings, and curious gyrations of
bats, observable in early evening, or on cloudy days, or
in the deep shade of woods, are for the purpose of cap-
turing insects, of which they devour immense numbers.

SUB-SECTION IV.

THE ORDER OF INSECTIVORA, OR INSECT-EATERS.

THE Order of Insectivora comprises mammals which
feed wholly or mainly upon worms and insects. They
are mostly nocturnal in their habits, and in cool climates
many of them remain in a torpid state during the winter.
Their incisors and canines vary in proportion and rela-
tive position ; their molars are studded with acute points,
feet short, plantigrade, and clavicles perfect. Wagner

has recognized five families :

Fig. 26.

Dermoptera, characterized by
the body being margined with
a hairy membrane. Such are
the Galeopithici, already no-
ticed with the Lemuridae.
Scandentia, characterized by a

Teeth of an Insectivorous Animal.

squirrel-like appearance, except

that the muzzle is attenuated and elongated. They climb
trees with agility, and in this respect differ from all the
other Insectivora. Such are the Banxrings and their
allies, confined wholly to the Indian Archipelago. These
two families demand no further attention in the pres-
ent work; but the three remaining ones Soricidae or
Shrew Family, Talpidag or Mole Family, and Aculeata
or Hedgehog Family which are universally recognized
as distinct families, require somewhat special attention.

INSECTIVORA : SORICID^E. 2/

SORICID/E, OR SHREW FAMILY. This Family is charac-
terized by a general mouse or rat-like appearance, elon-
gated and tapering muzzle, ears with distinct concha, and
fore feet smaller than the hind ones. On either flank,
or at the base of the tail, are situated peculiar glands
which emit an unpleasant odor. In true Shrews the teeth
vary from twenty-eight to thirty-two in number. The
dental formula is generally regarded as, incisors ^
premolars - - to , molars . The two large incisors

2-2 2-2' 3~3

in each jaw are directed nearly horizontally forwards,
the upper pair curved into a hook, and the lower are
straighter, and with the trenchant upper edge more or
less lobed. Shrews are found all over the world, and
more than twenty species belonging to North Amer-
ica, and distributed among three genera, have been de-
scribed. They live under rubbish, and in burrows which
they dig in the earth.

The Genus Ncosorex is characterized by rather short,
valvular ears, partly furred on both surfaces.

The Water Shrew, N. navigator,
Cooper, found at Fort Vancouver,
is two and one twelfth inches long
to the tail, which is three inches ;
the color dark sooty-brown above, water shrew,

grayish-white beneath. N - navigator, Cooper.

The Genus Sorex is characterized by large valvular
ears, concha directed backwards, tail about as long as
the body without the head, feet of moderate size and not
fringed, the upper forward incisor with a second basal
hook, and a small angular process on the inner side near
the point.

Trowbridge's Shrew, 6". Trowbridgii, Baird, of West-
ern North America, is two and a half inches long to the
tail, which is two inches ; the color sooty-brown above,
paler beneath.

28 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Wandering Shrew, S. vagrans, Cooper, of Western
North America, is two inches long to the tail, which is
one inch and two thirds ; the color above olive -brown
varied with hoary, dusky yellowish-white below.

Suckley's Shrew, 6". Sucklcyi, Baird, of Western North
America, is two and a quarter inches long to the tail,
which is about one inch and a half; the color light chest-
nut-brown above, grayish white beneath.

The Thick-tailed Shrew, 5. pacliyimis, Baird, of Min-
nesota to Fort Ripley, is two and a quarter inches long
to the tail, which is one inch and three quarters ; the
color light olive-brown above, ashy white beneath.

Forster's Shrew, vS. Forsteri, Rich., of Eastern North
America, is two and three quarters inches long to the tail,
which is one inch and two thirds ; the color smoky-brown
above, pale grayish-ash beneath.

Richardson's Shrew, 5. Richardsonii, Bachm., of North-
ern North America, is two and three quarters inches long
to the tail, which is about one inch and a half ; the color
above rusty iron-gray, paler beneath.

The Eared Shrew, 5". platyrhimis, Wagner, of North-
eastern United States, is two inches long to the tail,
which is one inch and a half; the color chestnut above,
pale cinereous beneath ; ears large.

Cooper's Shrew, 5. Coopcri, Bach., of Labrador to Ne-
braska, is about two inches long to the tail, which is less
than two inches ; the color light chestnut-brown above,
lighter beneath.

Hayden's Shrew, 5. Haydeni, Baird, of Western North
America, is one inch and three quarters long to the tail,
which is less than one inch and a half ; the color grayish
chestnut-brown above, whitish beneath.

The Masked Shrew, 5. pcrsonatus, Geoff., of the South-
ern Atlantic States, is one inch and three quarters long
to the tail, which is over one inch ; the color light chest-
nut-brown above, dull white beneath.

INSECTIVORA : SORICID^. 2Q

Hoy's Shrew, 5. Hoyi, Baird, of Wisconsin, is one inch
and three quarters long to the tail, which is one inch and
a quarter ; the color olive chestnut-brown above, dull
rusty white beneath.

Thompson's Shrew, 5. TJiompsonii,
Baird, of Nova Scotia to Ohio, is two
inches long to the tail, which is one

Thompson's Shrew,

inch and a quarter ; the color dark

olive-brown above, ashy white beneath.

S. palustris, Rich., of Hudson's Bay, is three and a half
inches long to the tail, which is over two and a half
inches ; the color hoary black above, ash-gray below.

5. fitnbripcs, Bach., has been found only in Pennsyl-
vania. It is two and one eighth inches long to the tail,
which is one inch and three quarters ; the color brown
above, buff below.

The Genus Blarina is characterized by a stout body,
tail shorter than the head, or nearly equal to it, and
coated with short bristly hairs, and with a small bunch
at the tip. The hands are large in proportion to the
feet, the palms as broad or broader than the soles, and
the latter usually hairy at the heels. The fore claws are
longer than the hind ones, external ear and auditory
opening invisible, the skull short and broad, anterior
upper incisors with the points simple, teeth rarely in
contact, and the lower anterior process of the lower jaw
short and stout.

The Mole Shrew, B. talpoides, Gray, of Nova Scotia to
Georgia, is three' and a half inches long to the tail, which
is one inch ; the color dark ashy-gray.

The Short-tailed Shrew, B. brevicauda, Gray, of Illinois
to Nebraska, is four inches to the tail, which is over one
inch ; the color dark brownish-plumbeous ; feet and edge
of lips whitish.

The Carolina Shrew, B, carolincnsis, Bach., of South

3O VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Carolina to Missouri, is about two and a half inches long
to the tail, which is three quarters of an inch ; the color
dark leaden-gray.

B. angusticeps, Baird, of Vermont, is over two and a
half inches long to the tail, which is one inch ; the color
plumbeous. The skull is very narrow.

The Ash-colored Shrew, B. cinerca, Bach., of Pennsyl-
vania to Florida, is two and a half inches long to the tail,
which is three quarters of an inch ; the color above iron-
gray, light gray beneath.

The Short-footed Shrew, B. exilipcs, Baird, of Texas to
Mississippi, is less than two inches long to the tail, which
is over half an inch ; the color above hoary olive-brown
with a chestnut tinge, grayish white beneath.

The Genus Mygale comprises the Desmans, which
differ from the Shrews in having two very small teeth
between the two great incisors of the lower jaw, and in
their two upper triangular and flattened incisors. The
muzzle extends into a long and flexible proboscis ; their
feet are webbed, and they are aquatic in their habits.
They inhabit Southern Russia, and one species is found
about the streams of the Pyrenees.

TALPID.E, OR MOLE FAMILY. This family is charac-
terized by a stout thick body, with no visible neck or
external ears, very short limbs, greatly expanded fore-feet,
and strong fossorial claws. The tail is usually short,
sometimes nearly as long as the body ; the fur is soft,
compact, and velvet-like. Moles are found all over the
world except in the inter-tropical regions ; each country,
however, has its characteristic genus or genera.

The Genus Scalops is distinguished by a long, de-
pressed muzzle, nostrils at the extremity, and either
superior or lateral, hidden eyes, short tail, toes more or
less webbed to the claws, teeth thirty-six to forty-four,
and the two anterior upper ones very large.

INSECTIVORA: TALPID.E. 31

The Common Shrew-
Mole, 5". aqnaticus, Cuv.,
of the United States
east of the Mississippi, is
four to five inches long
to the tail, dark plum- Common Moie, s>.

beous, the feet and tail white. The teeth are thirty-six in
number, nostrils superior, palms broader than long, tail
nearly naked, and feet fully webbed. Its eyes are so small
and completely hidden by the fur, that the casual ob-
server readily supposes it to be blind. In fact, the aper-
ture for the eye is only about the diameter of a human
hair, and the eye-balls are smaller than a grain of mus-
tard-seed. It inhabits both dry and wet lands, burrow-
ing in every direction at a little depth beneath the sur-
face, and throwing up at intervals the little hills of loose
earth so familiar to every observer. It burrows with
great rapidity, moves swiftly through its winding and
complicated galleries, and its strength is wonderful. It
is a remarkable fact, certified by good authority, that
these animals come to the surface daily at twelve o'clock.

The Silver or Prairie Mole, *S. argcntatus, Aud. &
Bach., of the Western States and southward, is somewhat
larger than the last, palms scarcely broader than long,
tail nearly naked, and the color silvery plumbeous.

The Oregon Mole, S. Townsendii, Bach., of the Pacific
coast of North America, is six inches long, nearly black,
nostrils superior on the tip of the snout, teeth forty-four,
and the tail scantily haired.

The Hairy-tailed Mole, 5. Breweri, Bach., of New Eng-
land to Ohio, is about five inches long from the nose to
the root of the tail, dark plumbeous, glossed with ashy
brown, the ear opening rather large, nostrils lateral,
palms rather narrow, teeth forty-four, and tail densely
hairy.

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig

Star-nosed Mole,
end of Muzzle.

Skull of Star-nosed Mole.
C. cristata, Illig.

The Genus Condylura is distinguished by the fringe of
elongated caruncles encircling the end of the nose.

Fig . 3I . The Star-nosed

Mole, C. cristata,
Illig., is about four
inches long to the
tail, which is about
as long as the body
without the head ; the color dark brownish-black. This
mole lives near the banks of streams, and in moist mead-
ows, where it digs its numerous and apparently intermi-
nable burrows, but, unlike the Shrew-mole, raises few
hills of loose earth.

The Genus Talpa, comprising the Common European
Mole, T. europcea, Linn., is confined to Europe and Asia ;
and the Genus Chrysochloris Golden-green Moles to
Africa. The latter presents the only example of mam-
mals with splendid metallic tints like those which adorn
so many birds, fishes, and insects.

The Genus Urotrichus has the muzzle prolonged into a
cylindrical tube, terminating in a simple naked bulb, and
the nostrils cylindrical and lateral. Found in Northwest-
ern America and in Japan.

ACULEATA, OR HEDGEHOG FAMILY. This Family is

characterized
by the back be-
ing covered with
spines or bris-
tles, and the tail
short or want-
ing. The spe-
cies all belong to
the Old World.
The Genus

Hedgehog, E. eurojceits, Linn.

GARNI VORA. 33

Hedgehogs has bristles instead of hair, and the skin
of the back is furnished with such muscles that the ani-
mal, by bending his head and paws towards his abdomen,
can shut himself up as in a bag, and present bristles on
all sides to the enemy.

The European Hedgehog, E. europceus, Buff., inhabits
woods and hedges, passes the winter in its burrow, and
feeds upon insects and fruit.

The Genus Centetes Tenrecs has the body covered
with spines or bristles like Fig. 33 .

the hedgehog ; but the ani-
mals of this genus have not
the power of rolling them-
selves so completely into a
ball. Three species inhab-
it Madagascar. They pass Tenrec > c - *-#**,
three months of the year in a state of lethargy, although
inhabiting the torrid zone.

SUB-SECTION V.

THE ORDER OF CARNIVORA, OR CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS.

THE Order of Carnivora comprises all the Mammalia
which feed wholly or mainly upon flesh, and with few
exceptions they capture the animals upon which they
prey. They are distinguished from all other animals,
not only by their general ap- Fig. 34.

pearance, but especially by
their sharp teeth and claws,
and by their internal diges-
tive apparatus. They have
six incisors in each jaw, the
lateral ones the largest, a
long, stout canine in each

Side Of both j aWS j USt behind Teeth of carnivorous animal.

34 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

the incisors, and a variable number of molars, which are
wholly trenchant, or in part with tuberculous crowns.
Thus the molars of Carnivora are not properly grind-
ing teeth, but they cut the prey like a pair of shears.
These animals are so much the more exclusively car-
nivorous as their teeth are more completely trenchant ;
and the relative proportions of their vegetable or ani-
mal food may be calculated from the extent of the tu-
berculous surfaces of the teeth as compared with the
portion which is trenchant. The clavicles of Carnivora
are imperfect or wholly wanting ; the stomach is simple,
and intestines short, --perfectly adapted to their easily-
digestible food. The Carnivora are found all over the
globe, and two hundred to three hundred species have
been described. They are divided into seven families,
the Felidae or Cat Family, Hyenadas or Hyena Fam-
ily, Canidas or Dog Family, Viverridae or Civet Family,
Mustelidae or Weasel Family, Ursidae or Bear Family,
and the Phocidas or Seal Family.

FELID/E, OR CAT FAMILY. This Family comprises
the Carnivora which are the most dexterous and rapid in
their movements, and endowed with the keenest senses,
and which are the most rapacious and formidable. The
head is short and broad, the teeth and claws excessively
sharp, and the latter are concealed in a sheath while the
animal is walking or at rest, but are instantly thrust forth
when occasion requires their use. The tongue is covered
with sharp prickles pointing backwards ; the number of
mature teeth is twenty-eight or thirty, and the dental for-
mula is, incisors , canines , premolars and molars
3-3 _ , _ i-i' 3-3

or ". The feet are digitigrade, with five toes before and
four behind. The soles are densely hairy, with naked
pads on the ball of the foot and under each toe. The
cushion-like nature of the bottoms of their feet enables
these animals noiselessly to approach their prey, which
they seize by a sudden spring.

CARNIVORA: FELID^E. 35

The Genus Felis true Cats is characterized by a
long and tapering, sometimes tufted tail, and by the
molars, which are .

The Lion, F. leo, Linn., inhabiting Africa except the
Nile countries, Arabia, Persia, and a large part of India,
is the strongest and most courageous of all the cats. It is
readily distinguished by its uniform tawny color, by the
tuft of hair at the end of the tail, and by the long, flowing
mane of the male. The largest individuals are eight or
nine feet long, exclusive of the tail. The lioness is smaller
than the lion, and has no mane. The appearance of this
animal is noble, his gait stately, his strength very great ;
his roar is tremendous and often terrific.

The Royal Tiger, F. tigris, Buff., of India and north-
ward, is as large as the lion, with a longer body and
rounder head. The color is lively fawn above, irregu-
larly striped with black ; below, pure white. There is
no animal that he will not attack, even engaging in
conflicts with the lion, which sometimes prove fatal to
both.

The American Tiger, or Jaguar, F. onca, Linn., of Texas
to Patagonia nearly, is somewhat smaller than the last,
clear brownish-yellow above ; beneath white, spotted.
On the sides of the body there is a series of polygonal
figures with borders composed of black blotches enclos-
ing a light area, with a few blotches in the centre.

The Panther, F. pardus, Linn., of Africa and India, is
fawn-colored above and white beneath, with six or seven
rows of black spots or blotches on each flank.

The Leopard, T. leopardus, Linn., of Africa and India,
is similar to the last, but has ten rows of smaller spots.
This and the Panther are smaller than the Jaguar.

The Puma, or American Panther, F. concolor, Linn.,
of Canada to Southern Patagonia, is the largest of the
American Cats except the Jaguar, being larger than the

36 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

largest dogs, and weighing in some cases a hundred and
fifty pounds. The color above is uniform pale brownish-
yellow, finely mottled by dark tips to all the hairs ; be-
neath, dingy white. It preys upon deer, sheep, and
smaller quadrupeds, and has been known to attack and

Fig- 35-

Puma, F. concolor, Linn.

kill a human being. It is sometimes called Catamount,
and Cougar.

The Ocelot, F. pardalis, Linn., of Texas to 30 south
latitude, is about the size of the American wild-cat, of a
gray color, with large fawn-colored spots, bordered with
black, forming oblique bands on the flank.

The Tiger Cat, F. cyra, Desm., of Texas to Guiana,
is about the size of the common domestic cat, but with a
longer neck, and the color uniform brownish red.

The Yaguarundi, F. yaguarundi, Desm., from the Rio
Grande to Paraguay, is larger than the common cat, with
a much longer body, and the prevailing color a grizzled
brownish gray.

The Domestic Cat, F. catus, Linn., is originally from

CARNIVORA : FELID^E. 3/

the European forests. In its wild state it is grayish-
brown, with darker transverse undulations.

The Genus Lynx - - Lynxes is distinguished from
Felis by the molars, which are always = , and by the
tail, which is scarcely longer than the head, and abruptly
truncate at the tip.

The American Wild-Cat, Lynx rufus, Raf., is about
thirty inches long to the tail, which is about five inches,
the fur full and soft, the color above and on the sides pale
rufous overlaid with grayish ; beneath white, spotted.
The tail has a small black patch above at the end, and
the inner surface of the ear is black, with a white patch.

The Texas Wild-Cat, L. rufns, var. viacnlatus, Aud. &
Bach., has the fur short and rather coarse, and quite dis-
tinct dark spots upon the back and sides.

The Red Cat, L. fasciatns, Raf., of Washington Terri-
tory, has the fur soft and full, the color above rich chest-
nut-brown, ears black inside, pencilled, and the terminal
third of the tail black above.

Fig. 36.

Canada Lynx, L. canadcnsis, Raf.

The Canada Lynx, L. canadensis, Raf., is about forty
inches in total length, the general color grayish hoary,
waved with black, ears grayish with a narrow black mar-
gin on the convexity, and tipped with a black pencil, and

38 VERTEBRATES ! MAMMALS.

the end of the tail black ; feet very large, densely furred
beneath in winter.

HYENAD^E, OR HYENA FAMILY. This Family com-
prises digitigrade Carnivora, which have the fore legs
longer than the hind ones, the claws non-retractile, feet
four-toed, tongue rough, the dental formula, incisors 3 -^,
canines ^ ^, premolars \ ^, molars j ^. The premolars
are very large and blunt, and these animals are able to
crush the bones of the largest prey, and swallow the frag-
ments without the slightest mastication. So powerful
are the muscles of the neck and jaws, that it is almost
impossible to wrest anything from between their teeth ;
and among the Arabs their name is the symbol of ob-
stinacy. Hyenas live in caves, are nocturnal, voracious
almost beyond the power of description, and feed chiefly
upon prey which they find dead. Many superstitious
traditions are connected with them. They belong to
Africa and Asia, and the largest have a total length of
five feet or more.

The Striped Hyena, H. vulgaris, Buff., of Africa and
India, is gray with dark stripes, and a mane which is
erect when the animal is angry.

The Brown Hyena, H. bmnnca, Thumb., and the Spot-
ted Hyena, H. crocuta, Schr., inhabit Southern Africa.

In the caves of England and on the continent of Eu-
rope are found in abundance the bones of an extinct
species of Hyena, H. spelcea, together with the bones
of many other extinct animals, which bear unmistakable
marks of its teeth.

CANID^E, OR DOG FAMILY. This Family comprises
digitigrade Carnivora without retractile claws, and with
all the feet apparently four-toed ; the forward ones, how-
ever, with a rudimentary thumb high up. The dental for-
mula is. incisors 3 , canines - ' premolars -, molars -

3-3' I - l' J 4~4 2-2

The Genus Cants Wolves is distinguished by the

CARNIVORA : CANID^E.

39

post-orbital process of the frontal bone being very con-
vex, and curving downwards, and by the circular pupil of
the eye. Wolves are crafty, ferocious, and greedy ; feeding
upon whatever they can kill, and also gorging themselves
upon the bodies of dead animals, which they scent at
great distances. They hunt in packs, and are thus able
to overpower animals which singly they could not master.
In newly settled districts wolves often make great havoc
among sheep, calves, and other domestic animals.

Fig. 37-

Wolf, C. occidentalis.

The White and Gray Wolf, C. occidentalis, var. griseo-
albns, Rich., found throughout North America, is pure
white to grizzly gray.

The Dusky Wolf, C. occidentalis, var. nubilis, Say,
found from the Missouri to the Pacific, is light sooty or
plumbeous brown.

The Mexican Wolf, C. occidentalis, var. mcxicanus, Gm.,
is gray and black, with neck more maned than usual, and
a dark band encircling the muzzle.

The Black Wolf, C. occidentalis, var. atcr, Rich., of Flor-
ida and other Southern States, is wholly black.

The Red Wolf, C. occidentalis, var. rufns, Aud. & Bach.,
of Texas, is mixed red and black above, lighter beneath.

The Prairie Wolf, or Coyote, C. latrans, Say, of the

4O VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

countries west of the Mississippi, is considerably larger
than the common fox, dull yellowish-gray on the back
and sides, with a clouding of black ; under parts dingy
white.

The Jackals, several species, of Africa and Asia, are
closely related to the wolves, belonging in the same

genus.

The Domestic Dog, C.familiaris, Linn., is distinguished
from the other species of Canis by the recurved tail. Some
naturalists consider the dog a wolf ; others, that he is a
domesticated jackal ; and yet those dogs which have be-
come wild again on desert islands resemble neither the
one nor the other of these. Of all animals, he is the only
one that has followed man to every part of the globe.

The Genus Vulpcs Foxes - - is characterized by a
slender head, elliptical pupil of the eye, scarcely lobed
upper incisors, and the post-orbital process of the frontal
bone is bent but little downwards, and the anterior edge
turned up.

The Common American Red Fox, V. fuhms, Desm., is
notorious for his nocturnal depredations upon farm-yards,
whence he carries away chickens, geese, and turkeys to
the dense thickets, where he spends most of the daytime.
The general color is reddish-yellow, the back behind griz-
zled with grayish, throat and a line on the belly and tip
of tail white, feet and ears black.

The Cross Fox, V. fulvus, var. decussatus, Desm., takes
its name from the black cross formed by a dark band
between the shoulders crossed by another over the shoul-
ders. It is found in the northeastern parts of the United
States and Canada.

The Silver Fox or Black Fox, V. fufaus, var. argenta-
tus, Shaw, is entirely black except the hind part of the
back, which is more or less grizzly ; and the tip of the
tail is white.

CARNIVORA : VIVERRID^E. 4!

The Prairie Fox, V. macrotmis, Baird, of the central
parts of North America, closely resembles the Red Fox,
but is larger, has longer fur and a longer tail, and is re-
garded as the most interesting species known.

The Swift Fox, V. vclox, Aud. & Bach., of Oregon, is
smaller than the Red Fox, the general color yellowish
gray above, back conspicuously grizzled, sides and por-
tions of the legs pale reddish-yellow ; the under parts
whitish, tail tipped with black.

The Arctic Fox, V. lagopus, Rich., of the Arctic re-
gions, is smaller than the Red Fox, of a white color, the
tail very full and bushy, and the soles of the feet densely
furred.

The Gray Fox, V. virginianns, Rich., of the United
States, is mixed hoary and black.

The Coast Fox, V. littoralis, Baird, of the island of
San Miguel, coast of California, is the smallest North
American fox, being scarcely larger than the common
house cat ; the color similar to that of the gray fox.

VIVERRID^:, OR CIVET FAMILY. This Family com-
prises small animals of the average size of the domestic
cat, but more elongated, and with a more pointed muzzle,
and with a long tail. In most cases the feet are digiti-
grade, with hairy soles and retractile claws. The dental
formula is, incisors , canines -, premolars . molars

22 3-3 i-i 4-4

The dentition differs from that of the dog family in
having one tubercular true molar less on each side of the
lower jaw. They secrete in a sort of pouch or gland a
substance formerly much used in perfumery, and which
was long an important article of commerce. With one
exception, they belong to the Old World.

The Genus Bassaris is represented in North America
by the Civet Cat, B. astuta, Licht, of Texas to California.
This animal is about the size of the domestic cat, but
more slender ; the color above brownish yellow mixed

42 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fi s- 38- with gray beneath, and the tail

white, the latter with six to
eight black rings. They are
arboreal, easily tamed, and fa-
vorite pets with the miners.

The Genus Viverra, accord-
ing to its old limits, comprises
^^^ the four following species.

Civet Cat, B. astuta, Licht. /- n1 ,-. -TT- ,. 7

The Civet, V. civctta, Lmn.,

of Africa, is ash-colored, irregularly barred and spotted
with black. There is a mane along the whole back and
tail which the animal raises at will. This species furnishes
the musky substance called civet.

The Common Genet, V. genetta, Linn., of Southern
Europe to Cape of Good Hope, is gray, spotted with
brown or black ; the tail annulated with black and white.
Its skin is an important article of trade.

The Mangouste or Ichneumon, V. ichneumon, Linn., of
Egypt, is about the size of the domestic cat, very slender,
of a gray color, tail long and terminated with a black tuft.
It hunts chiefly the eggs of the crocodile, but also preys
upon all sorts of small animals. It is kept in houses, like
the common cat. The Europeans at Cairo call it Pha-
raoh's Rat.

The Mangouste, V. miingos, Linn., of India, smaller
than the last, is celebrated for its combats with the most
dangerous serpents, and for having led us to the knowl-
edge of the Ophiorhiza mungos as an antidote for their
poison.

MusTELiDyE, OR WEASEL FAMILY. This Family com-
prises elongated and slender-bodied animals, with five-
toed plantigrade or digitigrade feet, and with a single
tubercular molar tooth only on either side of each jaw.
The Mustelidse comprise all the animals known as Fish-
ers, Martens, Sables, Weasels, Minks, Otters, Badgers, and

CARNIVORA: MUSTELID^:. 43

Skunks. Nearly all of this family have glands which
secrete a fetid liquid, and in some cases of a most dis-
agreeable odor.

The Genus Mustcla Martens is characterized by a
slender body, long tail, and thirty-eight teeth, the formula
being:, incisors , canines - , premolars -. molars -

3-3' I-l' 4-4 2-2

They are arboreal in their habits, and some of them yield
furs of great value.

The Fisher, M. Pcnnantii, Erxl., of the United States,
is the largest known species of this genus, being two feet
long to the tail, which is more than a foot in length ; the
legs, belly, tail, and hind part of the back are black ; the
back towards the head has an increasing proportion of
grayish.

The American Sable or Pine Marten, M. amcricana,
Tufton, of Northern Maine and of the Adironclac Moun-
tains, N. Y., thence northward and westward, is seven-
teen inches long to the tail, which is about ten inches ;
the general color reddish-yellow clouded with black, legs
and tail blackish, a broad yellow'ish patch upon the

throat widening below so as to

*ig. 39.

touch the legs, the central line be-
low sometimes yellowish, and the
feet are densely furred. The fur is
very full and soft, with many long
hairs interspersed. The highly
prized fur known as Hudson Bay American Sable,

Sable is furnished by this species. M - ''"<" Turton -

The Pine Marten, M. martcs, Linn., of Europe, is
brown, with a yellow spot under the throat.

The Common Marten, M. foina, Linn., of Europe, is
brown, with the whole under part of the throat and neck
white.

The Sable, M. zibellina, Pall, of Siberia, so celebrated
for its rich fur, known as the Russian Sable, is brown,

44 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS.

spotted with gray about the head, and its feet furred. It
inhabits the coldest regions, and the hunting to obtain it,
in the midst of winter and tremendous snows, is attended
with the greatest privations and dangers.

The Genus Putorius Weasels is characterized by a
very slender body, long tail, and thirty -four teeth, the den-
tal formula being, incisors , canines -, premolars ,

3~ 3 i - i ' 3-3'

molars . The lower sectorial tooth is without an in-

2-2

ner tubercle.

Fig. 4 o. The Least Weasel, P. pusillus, Aud.

& Bach., from New York to Puget's
Sound, is six inches long to the tail,

O

' which is less than two inches ; the
Weasel. color brown above, white beneath.

The Small Brown Weasel, P. Cicognonii, orfttscus, Aud.
& Bach., of North America, is about eight inches long
to the tail, which is three inches ; the color in summer,
brown above, whitish beneath ; in winter, white ; the tail
with the tip black.

The Little Ermine, P. Richardsonii, Bonap., of North
America, is eight inches long to the tail, which is over
five inches ; the color in summer dark chestnut-brown
above, whitish beneath ; in winter white, tail with a
black tip.

The Common White Weasel, P. noveboracensis, De Kay,
of the United States, is about ten inches long to the tail,
which is about six inches, the color in summer chestnut
brown above, whitish beneath ; in winter, white ; tail
tipped with black one third of its length.

The Long-tailed Weasel, P. longicauda, Rich., of West-
ern North America, is about eleven inches long to the
tail, which is nearly seven inches ; the color in summer,
light olive-brown above, brownish-yellow beneath ; in win-
ter, white ; the tail with a black tip about one fourth its
length.

CARNIVORA I MUSTELIDjE. 45

Kane's Ermine, P. Kaneii, Baird, of Behring's Straits
and Siberia, is eight and a half inches long to the tail,
which is about four inches ; the color in summer, brown
above, in winter white ; the tail tipped with black one
half its length.

The Bridled Weasel, P. frcnatus, Aud. & Bach., of
Texas and Mexico, is eleven inches long to the tail,
which is about seven inches ; the general color above
chestnut-brown, yellowish beneath, and the tail tipped
with black. The head above is dark brown, with three
white marks.

The Yellow-cheeked Weasel, P. xanthogenys, Gray, of
California, is closely related to the last.

The Common Mink, P. vison, Fig. 4 i.

Rich., of the United States, is
about seventeen inches long to
the tail, which is about half the
length of the body ; the general
color dark brownish -chestnut,
tail nearly black, and the end
of the chin white.

The Little Black Mink, P. Mink - p - viso > Rich -

nigrescens, Aud. & Bach., of the United States, is smaller
than the last, the color chestnut-brown glossed with
black ; the tail almost entirely black, and the end of the
chin white. This species furnishes the most valuable of
the mink furs. The furs sold under the name of Ameri-
can Sable, are mink.

The European Ermine, P, erminca, Linn., celebrated
for its valuable and well-known fur, is about ten inches
long to the tail, which is about five inches ; the color
olivaceous-brown in summer, white in winter, and the
tail has a long black tip.

The Ferret, P. furor, Linn., of Spain and Barbary, is
celebrated from its being employed to ferret out rabbits

40 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

from their holes. The Common Polecats of the Old
World all belong to this genus.

The Genus Gulo Gluttons is characterized by a
stout body, bushy tail, densely hairy soles with six naked
pads, and thirty-eight teeth ; the formula for which is the
same as in the Mustelidae.

The Wolverine, G. luscus, Sabine, of Northern New
York, thence northward and westward, is about three feet
long to the root of the tail, which is over a foot in length ;

Fig. 42.

Wolverine, G. fi/scus, Sabine.

the color dark brown, the tail, legs, and under parts black.
There is a lighter broad band on the flanks passing over
the base of the tail and rump, and a grizzled light patch
upon the temples. The most extravagant stories have
been told of this interesting animal. It is safe to say
that, for its size, it is very powerful, ferocious, and
exceedingly voracious. It is very troublesome to the
sable-hunters, by breaking up their wooden traps and
destroying the bait, or game ; it also destroys caches of
provisions. The Glutton of Russia is a closely related

species.

The Genus Lutra Otters is characterized by aflat
head, elongated body, short, palmated feet, distinct digits,

CARNIVORA : MUSTELID/E.

47

Fig. 43-

the central longer than the exterior ones, and tail de-
pressed and rounded at the sides. Otters are aquatic,
and are found in all parts of the world. They feed upon
fish, which they pursue with such dexterity that few are
swift enough to elude them. Otters have a singular
and amusing habit of sporting. Selecting a bank of
snow in winter, or a clayey bank in summer, they scram-
ble to the top, and then slide head foremost to the bot-
tom. If their sliding-place leads into the river, as is
generally the case, they go plump into the water, whence
they quickly come forth again to repeat an operation
which evidently gives them great satisfaction.

The Ameri-
can Otter, L.ca-
nadensis, Sab.,
of North Amer-
ica east of the
Rocky Moun-
tains, is about
four and a half
feet long, in-
cluding the tail,
which is eigh-
teen inches in
length. The
color is liver-
brown above,
slightly lighter beneath, sides of head and neck dirty-
whitish. The fur is of two kinds ; one long, somewhat
coarse, and scattered, the other shorter, fine, and dense.

The California Otter, L. calif arnica, Gray, of the Pacific
coast, closely resembles L. canadcnsis.

The Genus Enhydra comprises the Sea Otter, E. ma-
rina, Flem., of the Pacific coast of both hemispheres,
which reminds us of the seals. It is about twice the

American Otter, L. canadensis, Sabine.

48 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

size of the common otter, the color blackish, fur very
long and soft, and very valuable.

The Genus Mephitis Skunks is characterized by an
elongated body/pointed nose, fossorial feet, long and bushy
tail, upper hind molar very large and nearly square, and
black color with white markings. The skunks are, more-
over, characterized among all other animals by their well-
known and almost intolerable odor, which they emit when
disturbed. The dental formula is about the same as that
of Putorius. Skunks are nocturnal, and feed upon beetles
and other small animals, and upon eggs. They walk on
most of the sole of the foot, with the back much curved
and tail erect. Five species are found in North America.
The White-backed Skunk, M. mcsoleuca, Licht, of
Texas and Mexico.

The Long-tailed Skunk, M. varians, Gray, of Texas
and Mexico.

The California Skunk, M. occidcntalis, Baird, of the
western coast of the United States.

Fig . ^ The Common Skunk, M. chinga,

Tied., of the United States north
of Texas and east of the Missouri
plains.

The Little Striped Skunk, M.
bicolor, Gray, of Southern Texas
and California.

The Genus Taxidea Badgers
is characterized by a stout, ro-
bust, depressed body, very short tail,

Skunk, AT. chinea, Tied. i_ i i r T i

much enlarged fore claws adapted
to digging, and by a wedge-shaped skull.

The American Badger, T. americana, Waterh., of Ar-
kansas, thence northward and westward, is rather less
than two feet long to the tail, which is about six inches ;
the general color grayish above, light beneath. The

CARNIVORA: URSID^E.

49

hair is long, espe- Fig - 4S -

cially on the hind
part of the body,
whence it extends
so far towards the
extremity of the
tail as almost to
conceal the latter ;
and the ears ap-
pear as if they had

i , . T /-ii American Badger, T. americana, Waterh.

been clipped. The

Mexican Badger, T. Berlandieri, Baird, is a closely related
species. Badgers live in burrows, and dig with astonish-
ing rapidity.

URSID^;, OR BEAR FAMILY. This Family comprises
the true plantigrade carnivora, those which walk on
the whole sole of the foot. They are five-toed, and the
toes are distinctly separate. Their teeth are the same
in number as those of the Dog Family, but the sectorial
teeth and the molars behind them are tuberculated. They
have no ccecum. Though carnivorous, they feed more
or less upon vegetable food. Many of the species are
ready climbers. Those which inhabit cold climates pass
the winter in a torpid state. The Ursidae comprise the
Raccoons, Pandas, and Bears.

The Genus Procyon Raccoons is characterized by
a stout body, pointed muzzle, and moderately long tail.

The Common Rac- Fig 46

coon, P. lotor, Storr.,
of the United States,
is less than two feet
long to the tail, which
is about a foot ; the gen-
eral color light gray,

tinged With pale rUSty Common Raccoon, P. lotor, Storr.

3 D

5<D VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

across the shoulders, and much overlaid with black-tipped
hairs. The under parts are of a similar gray, but without
the black tips ; and over the whole body the dull-sooty
under-fur shows through. The tail has five distinct black
rings, and a tip of the same color, the interspaces being
grayish-white. The end of the muzzle is whitish, and
there is a black patch upon the cheek and another be-
hind the ear. The Raccoon is nocturnal in its habits,
and feeds upon roots, birds, and other small animals. It
is easily tamed, and is said to dip its food in water before

eating it.

The California Raccoon, P. Hernandezii, Wagler, of
Western North America, is larger than P. lotor.

The Genus Ailurus comprises the Shining Panda, A.
refulgcns, Fred. Cuv., of Northern India, of the size of
the common cat, the fur soft and thickly set, the color
above of the most brilliant cinnamon-red, behind more of
a fawn color, the head whitish, and the tail marked with
brown rings ; beneath black. Cuvier calls this the most
beautiful of known quadrupeds.

The Genus Ursus Bears is characterized by a large,
thick, clumsy body, broad head, short tail, wholly planti-
grade feet, with naked soles and long nails. The dental
formula is, incisors ^, canines ^ premolars ti^ molars
^. Four North American species have been described.

The Grizzly Bear, U. horribilis, Ord., of the plains of
the Upper Missouri to California, is six to eight feet in
length, hair coarse, an erect mane between the shoulders,
and the color grizzly. The feet are very large, and the
fore claws are twice as long as the hind ones, and on the
largest individuals are six inches in length. This animal
is one of the most powerful and most ferocious of all the
Bear tribe. When excited by hunger or anger, it attacks
man or any animal it can overtake. Even the Bison
sometimes falls a victim to its ferocity, and is dragged

CARNIVORA : URSID^E.
Fig. 47-

Grizzly Bear, U. horribilis, Ord.

away whole to be eaten at leisure. The Grizzly is not
easily brought clown, unless shot through the head or
heart, and when wounded is exceedingly dangerous to
the hunter.

The Brown Bear, U. arctos, Linn., of Europe, closely
resembles the last, but is regarded as distinct.

The Black Bear, U. amcricamis, Pallas, of North Amer-
ica generally, weighs from two hundred to four hundred
pounds, is of a uniform black or deep brown color, and

52 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

the hair is comparatively soft and glossy. Under ordi-
nary circumstances this bear is not very ferocious, seldom
attacking man unless wounded or much excited by hunger.
The Black Bear subsists upon roots, berries, and living
animals. The Cinnamon Bear of the Rocky Mountains
and Oregon is probably a variety of this species.

The White or Polar Bear, U. maritiimts, Linn., of the
Arctic regions of both hemispheres, is eight feet long,
and attains the weight of one thousand to fifteen hun-
dred pounds. It is snow-white, wholly carnivorous, and
feeds upon seals and other animals.

PnociDyE, OR SEAL FAMILY. This Family comprises
amphibious mammals, the Seals and the Walrus.
Though they spend more or less time upon the land,
their home is in the sea. They have an elongated,
muscular, flexible body, clothed with short thickly-set
hair. Their locomotive appendages are the same in
number as those of other Carnivora, but are so enveloped
in the general covering of the body that the only service
they can render upon land is to enable the animal to
crawl ; but, as the intervals of the toes are filled with a
stout membrane, they become excellent paddles for swim-
ming. The hind locomotive members project backwards
nearly on a line with the body, and appear to the casual
observer somewhat like the tail of a fish placed horizon-
tally. Their toes are all terminated with pointed nails.

The Genus PJioca is the one in which Linnaeus included
all the seals, but later the various species have been dis-
tributed among several genera.

Seals have six or four incisors above, four or two below,
canines and grinders to the number of twenty-two or
twenty-four, all trenchant or conical, and without any
tuberculous part whatever. The head resembles that
of the dog, whose intelligence and expressive look it
also possesses. Seals are easily tamed, and soon become

CARNIVORA : PHOCID/E.

53

Common Seal, Ph. vitulina, Linn.

attached to those who feed them. They live upon fish
and other aquatic animals, eat in the water, and close
their nostrils by a sort of valve when they dive. A dozen
or more species have been described.

The Common
Seal, Ph. vitulina,
Linn., abundant in
the cool and frigid
regions, is three to
five feet long, yel-
lowish-gray, and
more or less shaded and spotted with brown according
to age. The eyes are large, dark, and lustrous.

The Harp Seal, Ph. grocnlandica, Hooded Seal, Ph.
cristata, Gm., and Bearded Seal, Ph. barbata, Fabr., are
other species from the Northern regions.

The Monk Seal, Ph. monachus, Gm., of the Mediterra-
nean, is ten to twelve feet long, and is the one best known
to the ancients.

The Elephant Seal, Ph. leonina, Linn., of the Southern
Ocean, is twenty to twenty-five feet long, and the muzzle
of the male is terminated with a wrinkled snout, which
becomes inflated when he is angry. This seal is hunted
for its oil, of which it yields a large quantity.

The Sea Lion, Ph. jubata, Gm., of the Pacific, is fifteen
to twenty feet in length.

The Sea Bear, Ph. ursina, Gm., of the Arctic regions,
is eight feet long.

The Genus Tricliccus comprises the Walrus or Morse,
T. rosmarus, Linn., of the Arctic regions, which resembles
the large seals, but is especially distinguished from them
by having no canine or incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and
by having the upper canines enormously developed, form-
. ing tusks which in many cases are two feet long. The
Walrus is of the size of the largest ox, and attains the

54 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

length of twenty feet, and is covered with short brown
hair. It uses its strong tusks to lift itself from the
water upon the rocks or ice-banks, where large numbers
bask together in the sunshine. The tusks also serve as
means of defence, and for obtaining sea-weed, which with
fish constitutes its food. When attacked it is fierce, and
becomes a formidable antagonist, especially if attended
by young. It readily smashes a boat with its tusks, or,
rising in the water, hooks them over the side, and upsets it.

SUB-SECTION VI.

THE ORDER OF MARSUPIALIA, OR MARSUPIALS.

The Order of Marsupialia comprises animals whose
special characteristic is that their young are brought forth
in an exceedingly premature state of development, and, in
most instances, are received into a peculiar pouch on the
abdomen of the mother, where they are nourished till
they have acquired a degree of development correspond-
ing to that in which other mammals are born. The
young, after they are able to walk, also resort to the
pouch of the mother for safety in times of danger. With
the exception of one family found in America, the Marsu-
pials are all confined to Australia and islands immediately
adjacent ; and it is a singular fact, that all the mammals
of Australia, over a hundred species of which are known,
belong to this order.

DIADELPHID^E, OR OPOSSUM FAMILY. This Family
comprises all the Marsupials of North and South Amer-
ica, and is peculiar to this continent. Opossums are
mostly small animals, the largest scarcely exceeding the
common cat, and the smallest but little larger than a
mouse. They are plantigrade and five-toed. The dental

formula is. incisors , canines , premolars - ; , molars

4- 4 > *-?'.*' .3-3'

4-4

Their food consists of birds, birds' eggs, insects, and

MARSUPIALIA : DIADELPHID/E.

55

Fig- 49-

Opossum, D. virginiana,
Shaw.

other small animals. The tail is long, prehensile, and
nearly naked. More than twenty species are known. In
some, the pouch is rudimentary.

The Genus Diadelpliys comprises
the Common Opossum, D. virginiana,
Shaw, of the United States west of the
Hudson. It is twenty inches long to
the tail, which is about fifteen inches.
The hair is whitish with brown tips, im-
parting a dusky shade. It lives upon
trees, and feeds upon fruits, eggs, and
small animals. Its movements are not
rapid, and it often lies motionless for
hours in the warm sunshine. When
captured, or slightly wounded, it has
the habit of feigning itself dead, and
by this artifice often escapes from the inexperienced hun-
ter. The young, which at birth weigh only three or four
grains, are placed in the pouch, where they remain grow-
ing very rapidly till four or five weeks old, when they
begin to venture forth, but for a. long time keep close to
the mother, generally clinging to her by their tails.

The Texas Opossum, D. californica, Bennet, is found
from Texas westward.

The Genus Clicironectes is characterized by palmated
feet. It is represented by a small species in Brazil.

The Genus Thylacimis is distinguished from the true
Opossums by two incisors less in each jaw, a non-prehen-
sile tail, and the absence of a thumb on the hind feet. A
species about the size of a wolf, but with shorter legs, is
found in Australia. An extinct species has been found
imbedded in the plaster quarries of Paris, in France.

DASYURID^E, OR DASYURUS FAMILY. This Family
comprises those which have two incisors and four grind-
ers less in each jaw than Opossums, a non-prehensile tail,

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

and the thumb of the hind feet rudimentary or want-
ing. They vary in size from that of a mouse to that of
a wolf.

PARAMELEID^E comprise burrowing marsupials.
PHALANGISTID^:, OR PHALANGER FAMILY. --This Fam-
ily comprises those which have the two toes next the
thumb united by a membrane as far as the last phalanx.
Such are the true Phalangers of the Moluccas, which
live upon trees, and, according to Cuvier, at the sight
of man, suspend themselves by the tail, and, if gazed at
steadily, at length fall to the ground ; and the Flying
Phalangers of Australia, which have the skin of the
flanks extended between the legs, which enables them
to suspend themselves in the air and make greater leaps.
The species of this family vary in size from that of a
mouse to that of a cat, or larger.

MACROPODID^:, OR KANGAROO FAMILY. This Family

comprises Mar-
supials which are
specially charac-
terized by the re-
markable devel-
opment of their
hinder parts.
The hind legs
and the tail are
long and power-
ful ; the fore legs
very short and
Kangaroa weak, and little

used in progression, which is accomplished mainly by
leaping, for which their whole structure is most admira-
bly fitted. They sit mainly upright upon their haunches,
supported in part by the tail. They feed upon fruits and
plants, are perfectly harmless, and easily tamed. Forty

Fig. 50.

RODENTIA. 57

species are known, varying from the size of a hare to that
of a deer, or larger.

The Genus Macropus includes the Greater Kangaroo,
M. major, Shaw, which is the largest animal of Australia.
It is six feet high as it sits upright, of a grayish color, and
makes leaps of enormous extent. The young, at birth,
are only an inch long ; they resort to the pouch even
after they are old enough to graze, which they actually
accomplish in that position while the mother herself is
feeding.

PHASCOLOMYID^E, OR WOMBAT FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises Fig . 5I . Fig 52 _
animals hav-
ing large, flat
heads, short

. . Skull of Wombat

body that ap-
pears as if crushed, and without a tail. They have two
incisors in each jaw, similar to those of Rodents, and each
of their grinders has two transverse ridges. They are
sluggish, feed upon grass, and burrow in the ground.
The Wombat is of the size of a badger, and both this
and Lipurus, a closely related genus, live in Australia.

SUB-SECTION VII.

THE ORDER OF RODENTIA, OR GNAWERS.

The Order of Rodentia comprises all the gnawing
Mammalia. They are readily distinguished by their
teeth. In each jaw they have two chisel-shaped inci-
sors, between which and the molars there is a wide space
without teeth. The incisors are covered with enamel
only in front, so that their posterior edges wear away
faster than the anterior edges, thus always keeping these
teeth sharp, however much they are used ; and they
3*

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

grow at the base as fast as they wear
away at the summit. The lower jaw is
articulated with the skull in such a man-
ner that the jaws have no horizontal mo-
tion, except backwards and forwards, as
Skuifof a Rodent. is requisite in the act of gnawing. The
enamelled ridges of the molars are transverse, thus in
opposition to the horizontal forward and backward mo-
tion of the jaw, and exactly adapted to the process of
trituration. The form of Rodentia is generally such
that the hind parts considerably exceed those of the
front ; they are thus adapted to leaping instead of walk-
ing. Their fore-arms have little or no power of rotation,
and the bones of the fore-arm are in many cases united.
Rodents have simple or but little divided stomachs, long
intestines, brain without convolutions, and eyes directed
laterally. The number of species is great, six hundred or
more having been described. Most of them are small,
the beaver, with one or two exceptions, being the largest.
Rodents are found in all parts of the world, and are espe-
cially numerous in America. They comprise at least
five families, the Sciuridas or Squirrel Family, Sacco-
myidae or Gopher Family, Muridae or Rat Family, Hystri-
cidae or Porcupine Family, and Leporidae or Hare Family.
SCIURID^E, OR SQUIRREL FAMILY. - -This Family com-
prises the Squirrels and their allies, which have the

tibia and fibula distinct, and the molars - or . It

4-4 4-4

includes three sub-families.

i. Sciurinae, characterized by a distinct post-orbital
process, and by molars, rooted, ; ^.

The Genus Sciurus True Squirrels --is character-
ized by compressed incisors, long ears, divided snout and
upper lip, long tail, with the hairs arranged mainly on
the sides, absence of cheek pouches, and inner lines of
the upper molars parallel. Squirrels are lightly built,

RODENTIA : SCIURID^E. 59

agile, live upon trees, and feed on fruit and nuts. There
are about fifty American species, of which twelve or more
belong to the United States.

The Southern Fox Squirrel, 5. vulpinus, Gm., of the
Southern States, from North Carolina to Texas, is twelve
inches long to the root of the tail, which is fifteen inches ;
the color varies from gray above and white beneath,
through all shades of rusty to pure uniform lustrous
black ; the ears and nose white. This is the largest
North American Squirrel that has been described.

The Fox or Cat Squirrel, 5. cinereus, Linn., of New
Jersey to Virginia, and west to the Alleghanies, is about
twelve inches long to the tail, which is fourteen inches ;
the body heavy, color varying from light gray above and
white beneath, through all shades of pale rusty, to a grizzly
above and black below ; the ears and nose never white.

The Western Fox Squirrel, S. ludovicianus, Custis, of
the Mississippi Valley, is about twelve inches long to the
tail, which is about the same length ; color grizzly rusty-
gray above, and bright ferruginous beneath ; the nose
and ears never white.

The Gray and the Black Squirrel, 5. carolinensis, Gm.,
of the United States east of the Missouri, is nine to eleven
inches long to the tail, which is about an inch longer
than the head and body ; the color in the gray variety,
grizzled light yellowish-gray above, pure white beneath.
The Southern gray squirrel and the Northern gray squir-
rel are generally regarded as distinct species ; but Baird
considers them as varieties of one species, for which he
retains the name given above. The Southern variety is
smaller than the Northern, and, according to Audubon,
has different habits. The gray squirrel occurs of every
shade from gray to jet-black ; and the black and dusky
varieties have also been regarded by some as a species
distinct from the gray. Gray squirrels are remarkable for

6o

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig- 54-

their occasional extensive migrations. Assembling in im-
mense numbers, they make their way across the country,
swimming streams, and turning aside for no obstacle.

The Texas Fox Squirrel,
.S. limitis, Baird, is somewhat
smaller than 6". carolinaisis.

The California Gray Squir-
rel, S. fossor, Peale, is about
the size of 5. vulpinus, but
more slender.

The Chestnut-Backed Squir-
rel, 6". castanonotus, Baird, of the
Rocky Mountains, is about the
size of 5. cinerens.

The Tuft-Eared Squirrel, 6".
Aberti, Woodh., of San Fran-
cisco Mountains, is about eleven
inches long to the tail. This
is considered the handsomest
squirrel in America.
The Red Squirrel, or Chickaree, 5. hudsonins, Pallas,
of the United States east of the Missouri, and north to
Hudson's Bay, is seven to eight inches long to the tail,
which is about six inches ; the color above and on the
sides mixed black and grayish-rusty, with a broad band
of bright ferruginous along the back and upper surface
of the tail ; beneath, dingy white. These squirrels are
seen at all seasons of the year, and in all kinds of
weather. In the Northern forests the
deepest snows of winter are soon cov-
ered with their tracks, and penetrated
by holes bored to find the cones of
spruce, pine, and the nuts scattered be-
neath, or which they had hidden the
skuii of Red Squirrel, previous autumn. They often sit for

Gray Squirrel, Southern var.,
' 6". carolinensis, Gm.

55-

RODENTIA I SCIURID.E. 6l

hours upon a stump or limb of a tree close to the trunk,
and, holding a cone or a nut in their fore paws, gnaw
it briskly till they get all the food it contains. Dis-
turbed while upon the ground, the Chickaree ascends
the nearest tree, and, making for the outer branches,
leaps from these to another tree, and, passing thus from
tree to tree, is soon out of sight. Sometimes, however,
when suddenly startled, it ascends a tree a short dis-
tance, and commences chattering with great fury, and
leaping about as if in defiance of its intruder.

The Mountain Gray Squirrel, 6". Fremontii, And. &
Bach., of the Rocky Mountains, resembles the Red.

Richardson's Squirrel, 6". Richardsonii, of Western
North America, resembles the Red Squirrel, but is
larger.

The Oregon Red Squirrel, ^. Douglassii, Bach., also
resembles 6". hudsonius, but is larger.

The Genus Pteromys Flying Squirrels is charac-
terized by a densely furred membrane extending later-
ally from the sides between the fore and hind feet, by
means of which the animal is enabled to glide from one
tree to another, supported as by a parachute. There
are long, bony appendages to the feet, which support a
part of this lateral membrane. Four North American
species have been described.

The Common Flying Squirrel, P. volucclla, Desm., of
the United States east of the Missouri, is about five
inches long to the tail, which is a F j g s6 .

little less in length than the head and
body ; the fur very soft and silky, the
color light yellowish-brown above,
and creamy white beneath.

The Northern Flying Squirrel, P.
hudsonius, Fischer, of the Northern
States, is larger than P. volucclla.

62

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 57-

The Rocky Mountain Flying Squirrel, P. alpimis,
Rich., has the lateral membrane with the border
straight, and the tail longer than the body exclusive
of the head.

The Columbia River Flying Squirrel, P. orcgoncnsis,
Bach., is seven inches long to the tail, which is over six
inches, the color yellowish brown above, and dull white
beneath.

The Taguan, P. petaurista, Linn., of the Indian Archi-
pelago, is nearly as large as a cat, the male a lively mar-
roon above and red beneath ; the female brown above.

The Genus Clieiromys
Aye - Ayes may be men-
tioned here, but its true place
is doubtful. Some naturalists
regard this curious genus as
belonging to the Ouadrumana,
to which it seems related in
the structure of its head, and
in the opposable thumb of the
hind feet. The teeth in gen-
eral position are essentially
those of a rodent, but the lower

Aye-Aye, C. madagascarensis, Cuv. i nc i sors are muc h COmprCSSCd

and extended from before backwards. Only one species
of this monkey-like rodent is known. It inhabits Mada-
gascar, is of the size of a hare, of a brown color, and
burrows in the ground.

The Genus Tamias Striped Squirrels - - is charac-
terized by ample cheek pouches, tail shorter than the
body and not bushy, three to five dark dorsal stripes,
and four permanent upper molars. This genus comprises
only a few species, two of which are found in Europe and
Asia, and the remaining four or five in North America.

The Chipping, Striped, or Ground Squirrel, or Chip-

RODENTIA : SCIURID.E. 63

munk, T. striatns, Linn., from Montreal to Virginia and
westward to the Missouri, is five to six inches long to
the tail, which is four to four and a half inches ; the gen-
eral color above, finely grizzled yellowish-gray and brown,
the back and sides with five longitudinal black stripes.
The dark stripes

Fig. 58.

are bordered by
chestnut-brown,
and the rump is
pale chestnut. A
variety is whol-
ly black. The

Stiiped Squirrel, T. striatns, Linn.

writer has one

specimen of this color from New Hampshire. The Striped
Squirrel makes its hole near the roots of a stump or tree,
into which it carries its stores for winter, and where it
stays, without once coming out, so long as the cold
weather lasts. In autumn these squirrels may be con-
stantly seen hurrying towards their holes, their cheek-
pouches distended to the utmost capacity with nuts and
grain.

The Missouri Striped Squirrel, T. quadriinttatus, Rich.,
of Missouri and westward and southward, is four to five
inches long to the tail, which is about as long as the
body ; the back with five dark stripes, their intervals
forming four grayish-white lines ; the sides of the body
deep ferruginous, the under parts dingy grayish-white.
There is a light stripe along the top of the head, with
branches above and below the eyes.

The Gila Striped Squirrel, T. dorsalis, Baird, of New
Mexico, is distinguished by its single distinct dorsal dark
stripe.

Townsend's Striped Squirrel, T. Townsendii, Bach., of
the Pacific coast, is the largest of this genus yet seen in
North America.

64 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Genus Spennopkilus including Ground Squir-
rels, Spermophiles, and Gophers is characterized by a
squirrel-like body, variable ears, well-developed cheek-
pouches, and absence of the thumb claw. They are all
burrowing animals. This genus is represented in North
America by at least fourteen species.

The California Ground Squirrel, 5. Bcechyii, Rich., is
about the size of the cat squirrel, .S. cinereus, the color
above mixed black and light yellowish-brown ; beneath,
pale brownish-yellow. It is notorious for its depreda-
tions upon the farm products, and for its extensive exca-
vations.

The Columbia Ground Squirrel, S. Douglassii, Rich.,
of Columbia River, is very similar to the preceding.

The Line-tailed Squirrel, S. grammurus, Bach., is found
from the sources of the Arkansas to Sonora.

The Black Ground Squirrel, vS. Coiichii, Baird, is found
in Northern Mexico.

Say's Striped Squirrel, S. lateralis, Rich., is found from
the Rocky Mountains to the Cascade Range.

Harris's Spermophile, J?. Harrisii, And. & Bach., is
found in the Mohave Desert.

The Gray Gopher, 5. Franklini, Rich., of Northern
Illinois and Wisconsin and to the Saskatchewan, is about
nine inches long to the tail, which is five and a half
inches ; the color above light yellowish-brown varied
with black, the top and sides of head and neck hoary
gray, and under parts whitish.

The Round-tailed Spermophile, 5. tcrcticaudus, Baird,
found in California, is five to six inches long to the tail,
which is half an inch to an inch less.

The Striped Gopher, or Leopard Spermophile, 5". tri-
decem-lineatus, Aud. & Bach., of Michigan to the plains
of Missouri and southward, is about the size of the Red
Squirrel, 5. hudsonius^ with the tail something more than

RODENTIA : SCIURID^E.

.

Leopard Spermophile,
S. tridecem-lineatus, Aud. & Bach.

half the length of the body,
the color dark brown above,
with light stripes and lines of
light spots alternating with
each other, there being six of
the former and five of the lat-
ter. This is one of the most
beautiful animals of the ge-
nus. Its burrows are quite
deep and branching, and into
these it at once disappears with a chirp whenever it is
alarmed.

The Mexican Ground Squirrel, S. mcxicanns, Wagner,
of Texas and Mexico, resembles the Striped Gopher.

The Sonora Ground Squirrel, ^S. spilosoma, Bennett, is
found from New Mexico to the Gulf of California.

Parry's Marmot, 5. Parryi, Rich., found upon the shores
and islands of the Arctic Seas, is about the size of the
Fox Squirrel.

The Yellow Gopher, 5. Ricliardsonii, F. Cuv., of Mich-
igan to the Rocky Mountains, is rather larger than the
Red Squirrel.

Townsend's Spermophile, vS. Townscndii, Bach., of the
Rocky Mountains to the north, is about the size of the
Red Squirrel.

The Genus Cynomys Prairie Dogs is characterized
by rudimentary cheek-pouches, short ears and tail, five
distinct claws to all the feet, and very large molars.

The Prairie Dog, C. ludovicianus, Baird, of the Mis-
souri region, and westward and southward, is about the
size of the Fox Squirrel, but heavier, appearing much
like a miniature woodchuck. Its color is reddish-brown
above, and brownish-yellow below. These animals ut-
ter a sharp chirp, which is called barking ; hence their
name. They live in burrows, and large numbers are
often found in the same locality, forming communities

66

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Prairie Dog,
C. l/idoz'icianus, Baird.

which the hunters call "dog-
towns." Before each hole there
is a little mound of earth upon
which a Prairie Dog is almost al-
ways sitting, on the lookout for
intruders, and, on the slightest
alarm, dives into its hole, but
soon cautiously appears again.
It is well known that their holes
are the home of the burrow-
ing owls and rattlesnakes, with
whom the dogs seem to live in
perfect harmony ; but it is more probable that they are
intruders who are tolerated from necessity.

The Short-tailed Prairie Dog, C. Gunnisonii, Baird, is
similar to C. ludoviciamis.

The Genus Arctomys Woodchucks is characterized
by a large, thick, depressed body, rudimentary cheek-
pouches, rudimentary thumb armed with a small flat
nail, and naked soles. They pass the winter in a tor-
pid state.

The Woodchuck or Ground Hog, A. monax, Gm., of
the Northern States and southward, is fifteen to eighteen
inches long to the tail, which is about half as long as the
head and body ; color varying from black all over to
grizzled above and bright chestnut-red beneath ; the feet
always black or dark brown, and the tail generally black.
They often commit great havoc in fields of clover, upon
which they like to feed.

The Yellow-footed Marmot, A. flavivcntcr, Bach., is
found in Nebraska.

The Hoary Marmot, or Whistler, A. pruinosus, Gm.,
of Northwestern North America, is about the size of the
common woodchuck.

The Alpine Marmot, A. alpimis, Linn., of the high
mountains of Europe, immediately below the region of

RODENTIA: SCIURID^;. 67

perpetual snow, is about the size of a hare ; the color
yellowish-gray. It is often tamed, and is very gentle and
playful.

2. Myoxinae have no post-orbital process, molars rooted,

- , and no ccecum.
4-4

The Genus Myoxus Dormice is characterized by
laterally compressed incisors, four grinders on each side
of both jaws, the crowns of which are divided by enam-
elled lines. Dormice are pretty little squirrel-like ani-
mals, of the size of rats and mice, with soft fur, hairy and
tufted tail, and lively eye. In the winter they become
torpid. So far as known, they belong to Europe and
other parts of the Old World.

3. Castorinae have no post-orbital process, molars root-
less, , or in Aplodontia - .

The Genus Castor Beavers is characterized among
all the Rodentia by the broad, horizontally flattened, and
scaly tail. Beavers have five toes to each foot, the hind
feet webbed, and the second hind toe has a double claw.
With one exception, they are the largest of living Rodents,
and are wholly aquatic in their habits ; their feet and tail
are admirably adapted for swimming, and their chief food
is bark and aquatic plants. Their incisors are very sharp
and powerful, enabling them to gnaw down trees of the
hardest wood. Beavers prefer running water, in order
that the wood which they cut may be carried to the spot
where it is to be used. They keep the water at a given
height by dams, which they build of trees and branches'
mixed with stones and mud, and build houses for winter
with the same materials. Each house consists of two
stories, and serves for two or three families. The upper
story is above water and dry, for the shelter of the ani-
mals themselves ; the lower is beneath the water, and
contains their stores of bark and roots. The only open-
ing to the hut is beneath the water. They have burrows

68

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 61.

American Beaver, C. canadensis, Kuhl.

in the banks,
whither they
retire when
their houses
are attacked.
The general
color of the
beaver is a
uniform red-
dish - brown,
and the fur
is of the best
quality, and
was former-

ly very valuable. Only two species are known.

The American Beaver, C. canadensis, Kuhl., found all
over North America ; and the European Beaver, C. fiber,
Linn., of the Old World. These are much alike.

The Genus Castoroidcs comprises the Fossil Beaver, C.
ohioensis, Foster, of New York and westward, known only
from its skull, which shows that this beaver-like Rodent
was six times the bulk of our living species.

The Genus Myopotamus comprises the Couia, M. coi-
pus, Cuv., of South America, which resembles the beaver
in size and habits, but has the tail round and long. The
fur is yellowish-gray, and is known among the hatters
under the name of nutria.

The Genus Aplodontia comprises the Sewellel, A. lepo-
rina, Rich., of Puget's Sound, which is about the size and
general appearance of the muskrat, but with the tail very
short and much depressed.

SACCOMYID/E, OR POUCHED GOPHER FAMILY.- -This
Family comprises Rodents which have large and distinct
external cheek-pouches, pelage composed of stiff hairs
with no under fur, molars ^, and the upper lip not cleft.

RODENTIA: SACCOMYID^E. 69

I. Geomyinae comprise those which have the body
thick-set and clumsy, skull massive, incisors very large
and thick, limbs very short, fore claws five in number
and enormously developed. They are burrowing and
nocturnal in their habits. The Genera Geomys and Tho-
momys comprise the Pouched Gophers of North America,
of which there are more than a dozen species.
The Pouched Gopher, Pock- Fig< 62-

et Gopher, or Pouched Rat,
G. bnrsariies, Rich., of the
Northwestern States, is eight
to ten inches long to the tail,
which is one to two inch- SMMHEEj^ifaiS*
es ; the color reddish brown Pouched Gopher,

, , ,1 i G. bursarius, Rich.

above, paler beneath, with a

plumbeous tinge along the vertebral region. Its cheek-
pouches are very large, extending as far back as the shoul-
ders, and lined with short hair ; and, as in other mem-
bers of this family, are used mainly or wholly to convey
food into the burrows, to be stored up or eaten at leisure.

The Salamander, G. pinctis, Raf, of Florida to Ala-
bama, is a gopher readily distinguished by the single
deep groove of the upper incisors, dividing the surface
into two unequal portions.

The Pecos Gopher, G. Clarkii, Baird, is found in Texas.

The Chestnut-faced Gopher, G. castanops, Lee., is found
in the Upper Arkansas region.

The California Gopher, T/wmomys bulbivorus, Baird, is
about the size of G. bursarius, cheek-pouches completely
furred inside and white to their very margin, which is
dark brown. The color above is reddish-chestnut-brown,
finely lined by dusky tips to the hairs ; beneath paler ;
the chin dusky, with the extremity white.

The Broad-headed Gopher, T. laticcps, Baird, and the
Oregon Gopher, T. Donglassii, Giebel, are other species
respectively from California and Oregon.

7O VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

2. Saccomyinae comprise those which have the body
graceful and slender and motions agile, the skull delicate,
muzzle long and tapering, tail very long, hind feet long,
and the fore claws moderate, but exceeding the hind ones.

The Genus Dipodomys Kangaroo Rats is charac-
terized by a broad, depressed head, large, rounded ears,
acute snout, ample cheek-pouches opening externally, very
long hind legs, and a long tail with a brush-like tip.

The Kangaroo Rat, D. Ordii, Woodh., of the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains, is about five inches long
to the tail, which is about as long as the body, with an
erect crest of long hairs towards the end. The color
above is yellowish-brown ; below, white.

The Jumping Rat, D. Pkillipii, Gray, and the D. agilis,
Gambel, belong to Western North America.

The Genus PcrognatJius comprising the Tuft-tailed
Mouse, P. pencillatns, Woodh., and five or six closely
allied species, all of Western North America differs
from Dipodomys in having the ears small, tail of mod-
erate length, under surface of the soles naked or sparsely
hairy, the molars rooted and the transverse ridges tuber-
culated. The Tuft-tailed Mouse is three to four inches
long to the tail, which is four to five inches, with a
pencilled crest at its extremity. The color above is
yellowish-brown ; the under parts, hind feet, and fore
legs, white.

MURID^E, OR RAT FAMILY. This Family comprises
Rats, Mice, and their immediate allies, in all more than
three hundred species, some of which are found in every
country on the globe. None are of large size, the musk-
rat being the largest, and some are the smallest quadru-
peds known, except the shrews. The dental formula is,
incisors \, molars usually 3 - ~, rooted or rootless. Of this
large family, the most extensive of the whole order of Ro-
dents, there are three, at least, well-defined sub-families.

RODENTIA : MURID^E.

Fig. 63.

1. Dipodinse are characterized by unequal, generally
rooted molars, and greatly elongated hind legs.

The Genus Dipus Jerboas is characterized by a
large head, long, densely hairy, and tufted tail, hind legs
which are exceedingly long in comparison with the for-
ward ones, and by the metatarsus of the three middle toes
which is formed of a single bone, and by the three upper
molars on each side. The Jerboas move about on their
hind feet, making great leaps. The ancients called them
Biped Rats. They belong to Africa and Asia.

The Genus Jaculus has the hind legs and tail very
long, the latter thinly haired, the hind feet five-toed, and
the upper molars four on each side.

The Jumping Mouse, or American Jerboa, J. hndsonius,
Baird, of Labrador and southward and westward to the
Pacific, is about three inches long to the tail, which is
four to six inches ; the col-
or above light yellowish-
brown lined finely with
black, beneath white, and
the sides yellowish-rusty,
sharply defined against
the colors of the back and
belly. When startled it J ump!ng Mouse ' * **<** Baird -
progresses by very long and rapid leaps, and there is
probably no other mammal of its size that can make its
way over the ground with so great rapidity, or so quickly
escape from its pursuers.

The Genus Gcrbillus, Gerbils, of the warm parts
of the Old World, belongs near this group, if not in it.

2. Murinae have compressed incisors, molars 3 - -^ or ^ )
and rooted, the largest anterior, and the smallest poste-
rior. They comprise Mures and Sigmodontes.

a. Mures, or the Old-World Rats, are characterized by
very large and broad molars, and those in the upper jaw
have three tubercles in each transverse series.

72 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Genus Mm - - Rats is characterized by upper
divided lips, acute snout, whiskers in five series, large
and nearly naked ears, and long tail, the scaly whorls of
which are very distinct. Over fifty species of this genus
are known, four of which have taken up their abode in
the United States.

The Norway or Brown Rat, M. deaimanm, Pallas, is
eight to ten inches long to the tail, which is somewhat
shorter than the head and body ; the color above grayish-
brown mixed with rusty, beneath ashy white. This rat
is known all over the world, and is very destructive in its
habits. It belonged originally to Central Asia ; crossing
the Volga in large troops in 1737, it stocked Russia, and
subsequently overrun all Europe. In 1775 it found its
way to North America. It is often called Wharf Rat.

The Black Rat, M. rattus, Linn., is readily distinguished
from the Brown Rat ; its color being sooty-black above,
passing into dark plumbeous or paler beneath. Its origi-
nal locality is unknown. It has been the house-rat of
Europe from earliest times, and was introduced into
America in 1544. This species is rare, or wholly want-
ing, in localities where it was formerly very abundant ;
for it always disappears before its more formidable rival,
the Brown Rat. Both these species devour everything
edible that they can secure, often capturing living prey.

The Roof Rat, or White-bellied Rat, M. tcctortim, Savi,
of the Southern States, is smaller than the Brown Rat.
It is originally from Egypt, where it frequented the
thatched roofs of the houses ; hence its name.

The House Mouse, M. mnscnhis, Linn., originally from
Europe and Asia, but now found all over the world, is
grayish-brown, finely lined with darker, passing into ashy
plumbeous, with a reddish tinge on the belly ; the feet
are ashy brown.

The Genus Cricetus, comprising the Hamsters of North-

RODENTIA : MURID.E. 73

ern Europe and Asia, differs from rats in having cheek-
pouches and a hairy tail.

b. Sigmodontes, or New-World Rats and Mice, are
characterized by narrower molars than in Mures, and
those of the upper jaw have two tubercles in each trans-
verse series.

The Genus Rdthrodon Harvest Mice is charac-
terized by short, hairy ears and tail, and upper incisors
with a longitudinal channel along the anterior face.
There are four species in the United States.

The Harvest Mouse, R. humilis, Baird, of South Carolina
and westward, is less than two inches and a half long to
the tail, which is a little shorter than the head and body ;
the color above grayish-brown, grayish-white beneath.
The region about the mouth, and the chin, and feet are
white.

The Long-tailed Harvest Mouse, R. longicauda, Baird,
of California, is very similar to R. hnmilis.

The Genus Hesj>roMj's White-footed Mice is char-
acterized by a murine appearance, variable and scantily-
haired tail, molars diminishing from first to last, and
elongated, the sides indented and the crowns with a sin-
gle longitudinal furrow. Most of the species have white
feet, and the tail whitish with a darker stripe above.
Fifteen or more species inhabit the United States.

The White-footed, or Deer Mouse, H. leucopus, Wagner,
of Labrador to Virginia
and westward to the Mis-
sissippi, is three to four
inches long to the tail,
which is nearly as long as
the head and body ; the col-

' White-footed Mouse, H. lencopus, Wagner.

or yellowish -brown, with

generally a dorsal wash of darker, and the under surface
of the tail pure white.
4

Fig. 64.

74 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Red Mouse, H. Nuttalli, Baird, of Pennsylvania
to Georgia and westward, is of the size of H. Icucopus ;
the general color bright yellowish-cinnamon, the feet and
under portion of the tail white.

The Cotton Mouse, H. gossypinus, Lee., is somewhat
larger than H. Icucopus, rusty yellowish-brown above,
ashy-white beneath.

The Gray-bellied Mouse, H. cognatus, Lee., is closely
related to H. Icucopus, but smaller, the color yellowish-
brown, the under parts and feet dingy white.

The Long-tailed Mouse, H. Boylii, Baird, of Western
North America, is larger than H. Icucopus, body stout,
the color above mixed glossy-brown and pale yellowish-
brown ; the lower parts white.

The Hamster Mouse, H. myoidcs, Baird, of Canada and
New York, is of the size of H. leucopus or larger, with
moderate cheek-pouches, the color above cinnamon-brown
lined with dusky, the under parts and feet pure white.

The Prairie Mouse, H. michiganensis, Wagner, of Mich-
igan and westward, is about three inches long to the tail,
which is half an inch or an inch shorter than the head
and body ; the color above blackish-brown, the under
parts snowy white.

The Great-eared Mouse, H. calif ornicus, Baird, is one of
the largest of the genus, sooty-brown above, white below.

The Desert Mouse, H. crcmicus, Baird, of California, is
readily distinguished by its naked soles.

The Missouri Mouse, H. leucogaster, Baird, of the Upper
Missouri, is grayish-brown above, white below.

The Rice-field Mouse, H. palustris, Wagner, of South
Carolina and Georgia, is of a mixed black and pale
brownish-ash color above, ashy white beneath.

The Genus Neotoma -- Wood Rats is characterized
by a rat-like appearance, large and nearly naked ears,
long and more or less densely hairy tail, and hairy heels.

RODENTIA I MURID^E. 75

The Wood Rat, N. floridana, Say & Ord., of Florida
and northward and westward, is of the size of the Black
Rat, grayish-brown mixed with rusty above, and the
under parts and feet white.

The Bush Rat, N. mcxicana, Baird, of Texas to Cali-
fornia ; the Black Wood Rat, N. micropus, Baird, of Texas
and Mexico ; the Brown-footed Rat, N. fuscipes, Cooper,
of California ; the Hairy-tailed Rat, N. occidentalis, Cooper,
of Oregon ; and the Rocky Mountain Rat, N. cinerea, Baird,
are additional species of this genus. N. magister, Baird,
is found fossil in the caves of Pennsylvania.

The Genus Sigmodon Cotton Rats is characterized
by the shape of the enamel on the two last molars in the
lower jaw, which is in the form of the Greek letter sigma.

The Cotton Rat, 5. hispidns, Say & Orel., of the South-
ern States, is about half as large as the Norway Rat ; the
color above reddish-brown lined with dark brown.

The Texas Cotton Rat, 5". Berlandieri, Baird, is of a
lighter color, and with a larger tail.

3. Arvicolinae are characterized by incisors as broad
as deep, molars -^, rootless, ears short and hidden, muz-
zle broad and rounded, tail very short and mostly clothed
thickly with hair, and the whiskers as in Murinae.

The Genus Awicola Field Mice is characterized
by small size, soles naked anteriorly, tail rather short,
cylindrical, and hairy. The posterior upper molar is
composed of five or six prisms, and the posterior lower
one of three. This genus is represented in the United
States by more than twenty species, about half of which
belong to the western portions.

The Red-backed Mouse, A. Gappcri, Vigors, of the
Northern States, is about the size of the common house
mouse, the back with a broad stripe of bright rufous
brown, sides yellowish-gray mixed with brown, and the
under parts yellowish-white.

76 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

The Meadow Mouse, A. riparia, Ord., of the Northern
and Middle States, is four and a half inches long to the
tail, which is about two inches, the feet large, the color
dark brown above, ashy-plumbeous below.

The Gray Mouse, A. Breweri, Baird, of the Eastern
United States, is about four and a half inches long to
the tail, feet very broad and stout, fur coarse, and the
color grayish yellow-brown above, ashy-white beneath.

The California Arvicola, A. californica, Peale, is about
the size of A. riparia, the fur very long and soft, color lus-
trous light yellowish-brown above, grayish-white beneath.

The Prairie Meadow Mouse, A. mist era y Lee., of the
Mississippi valley, is about the size of A. riparia, pale
cinnamon-rufous, variegated with black, below brighter.

The Upland Mouse, A. pinctorum, Lee., of the Atlantic
States and westward, is three and a half inches long to the
tail, dark chestnut-brown above, hoary plumbeous below.

The Genus Myodcs Lemmings comprises little
mouse-like animals, the largest hardly as large as a rat,
with a broad skull, large fore feet, long claws fitted for
digging, and very short tail. Lemmings inhabit the
northern regions of both continents, and are celebrated
for their occasional extensive migrations. Norway, Swe-
den, and Lapland are sometimes overrun with these ani-
mals. Coming, in countless numbers, no one knows
whence, and going no one knows whither, they sweep
onward in a straight line, swimming rivers and lakes,-nor
turn aside for scarcely any obstacle ; and they destroy
everything edible in their course.

The Genus Fiber comprises the Muskrat, F. zibct/iicus,
Cuv., abundant throughout North America, and twelve
to fourteen inches long to the tail, which is ten to eleven
inches ; the body thick and clumsy, tail much compressed,
and in its natural position sickle-shaped, the convex por-
tion being above, and the hind feet partly webbed. The

RODENTIA : HYSTRICIDyE. 77

general color is dark brown above, rusty brown below.
Muskrats feed upon mussels and roots of grasses and
aquatic plants, and build winter houses of mud, sticks,
and grass, and having an entrance under the water which
leads to a dry apartment above. In summer they dig
burrows of great extent along the banks, in which they
bring forth their young. They are good swimmers, mov-
ing with ease and considerable rapidity. At early even-
ing, or on a moonlight night, they may be seen swim-
ming from bank to bank, or log to log, and often sporting
together in the most playful manner.

4. Spalacinae, comprising the Blind Rat-Moles of the
Old World, may perhaps be considered a fourth sub-
family of Muridae.

HYSTRICID^:, OR PORCUPINE FAMILY. This Family
comprises a large number of Rodents, which at first view
seem very different from one another, but which are
united by important characters. The molars are - , and
the terminal portion of the muzzle is clothed with small
hairs. They are mainly American, and chiefly confined
to the southern portion of the continent.

The Genus Erethizon Porcupines is characterized
by a flat cranium, short muzzle, medium-sized tail, and
spines which are short and half hidden in the hair.

The White-haired or Canada Porcupine, E. dorsatus,
F. Cuv., of Northern United States and Canada, is about
two feet long to the tail, which is seven inches. The
tail and upper parts are covered with a mass of white
spines with dusky and bearded tips. The general color
of the fur is dark brown, among which are long hairs
with white tips. This animal is extremely sluggish, mak-
ing but little effort to escape from man or beast ; but
its formidable armor is an effectual defence. It readily
climbs trees, and feeds upon bark, leaves, and tender ears
of Indian corn. It lives in hollow trees and in holes
among the rocks.

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Yellow-haired Porcupine, E. epixanthus, Brandt,

of the Upper Missouri region and the whole Pacific coast

Fig. 6 5 . of North America,

is nearly the size of
the Beaver ; general
color dark brown,
and the long hairs
of the body tipped
with greenish -yel-
low.

The Genus Hys-

trix belongs to the
Old World.

The Crested Por-
cupine, H. cristata,
Linn., of Southern
Europe and Bar-
bary, and South-

Porcupine, E. etorsatns, F. Cuv. WCStCm Asia, is of

a grizzly dusky black, and the upper part of the head and
neck with a crest of long, lighter-colored hairs. Its body
is armed with striated spines, the longest of which are a
foot in length, and in the middle about the size of a large
goose-quill. These are banded with black and white,
and terminated by very sharp points. The tail is short,
and furnished with hollow, truncated tubes attached to
slender pedicles, which make a noise when shaken. When
the animal is at rest, the quills lie flat upon the body, the
points directed backwards ; when attacked or excited,
they are raised, and thus constitute formidable weapons
of defence.

The popular notion that Porcupines have the power to
throw their quills at an enemy is entirely erroneous.

The Genus Dasyprocta Agoutis has four toes be-
fore and three behind. The Agoutis belong to South

RODENTIA : LEPORID/E. 79

America and adjacent islands, where they seem to take
the place of hares and rabbits, which in general appear-
ance they much resemble. Ccelogcnys, comprising the
Pacas, is a closely related genus, also of South America.

The Genus DolicJwtis comprises the Patagonian Cavy,
weighing about twenty pounds, and resembling a hare.

The Genus Chinchilla Chinchillas and closely al-
lied genera inhabit the mountain regions of Chili and
Peru. Chinchillas are scarcely larger than rats, with a
short tail, and are covered with ashen-colored fur of the
finest and softest quality, which is extensively used.

The Genus Cavia Cobayes or Guinea Pigs com-
prises animals which in general appearance are minia-
tures of the next genus, except in their separate toes.

The Common Guinea Pig, C. cobaia, Pallas, is indige-
nous to South America, but is now found also in a do-
mestic state in all parts of the world. It is in no way
related to the pig. The head and nose resemble those
of a hare, and the eyes are large and round. It is said
that rats will not stay in houses where these animals are.

The Genus Hydrochcerus is characterized by large size,
four toes before and three behind, and all armed with
large nails and united by membranes.

The Capybara, H. capybara, Cuv., of South America, is
the largest known Rodent, being three feet long, and ex-
ceedingly bulky. Its muzzle is thick, limbs short, hair
coarse, and tail almost wholly wanting, and the general
color yellowish-brown. It is aquatic in its habits, is
hunted as game, and its flesh is quite good for food.

LEPORID^E, OR HARE FAMILY. This Family is dis-
tinguished from all other Rodents, not only by many
external characters, but especially by the upper incisors,
which are double, each principal incisor having a smaller
one behind it. The dental formula is, incisors -, molars

6-6

- or 5 - . All the incisors are less deeply implanted in

8O VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

the jaws than in other Rodents, and are always white ;
and the molars are always rootless. The fore feet are
five-toed, and the hind ones four-toed, and all well devel-
oped ; and at the lower part of the shank the tibia and
fibula are always united. The members of this family
have the feet clothed with hair beneath, and the inner
surface of the cheeks lined with hairs. The tail is short
and bushy, and is carried erect ; or it exists only in a
rudimentary condition. They feed upon bark, tender
twigs, and leaves. Some live in burrows, but most have
merely a. form, or nest on the ground, where they gener-
ally sit during the day. Hares have a curious habit of
stamping with their hind feet when they are alarmed or
excited. They are very timid. This family is represented
in nearly all parts of the world.

The Genus Lepus is characterized by molars -, large
ears, short and bushy tail, hind legs powerful and much
longer than the fore legs. About twenty Old-World
species have been described, and rather less than that
number of North American. Although the name is ap-
plied to several of our species, it is probable that there
is no genuine North American Rabbit, of which the Eu-
ropean Rabbit, L. cuniculus, may be taken as a type ; but
our species of this genus are Hares, which are mainly
solitary in their habits, and do not construct burrows.

The Polar Hare, L. glaciates, Leach, of Northern and
Arctic America, is twenty to twenty-five inches from the
nose to the tail, and is one of the largest of the hares.

The Northern Hare or White Rabbit, L. amcricanus,
Erxl., of Virginia to Labrador and westward, is nine-
teen to twenty inches long ; the color cinnamon-brown
in summer, and in winter white, but showing yellowish-
brown between the tips of the long hairs. This species
lives in the thickest woods, rarely or never goes into
holes when pursued, but depends for its safety upon its

RODENTIA : LEPORIDyE. 8 1

fleetness and its windings and doublings among the
thick cover. It follows the same paths year after year,
both in winter and summer.

The Red Hare or Washington Hare, L. WasJiingtonii,
Baird, of Washington Territory, is smaller than the pre-
ceding, and in summer of a rich cinnamon-red color.

The Prairie Hare, L. campcstris, Bach., of the Upper
Missouri region and northward and westward, is larger
than the White Rabbit, the tail as long as the head, and
the color in winter white, with a yellowish tinge, and in
summer brownish-gray.

The Mule Rabbit, L. callotis, Wagler, is found in the
southwestern parts of North America.

The California Hare, L. californicus, Gray, is twenty to
twenty-five inches long, the general color above is mixed
black and light cinnamon-red ; the under parts cinnamon.

The Gray Rabbit, L. sylvaticus, Bach., common through-
out a large part of the United States, is fifteen to sixteen
inches in length, the general color yellowish-brown with
a tinge of reddish, the lower parts pure white. It does
not turn white in winter. When first started, the Gray
Rabbit runs with great swiftness, but soon stops to listen.
It is well known to hunters that they can stop it, when
first started, by whistling. If pursued, and if the woods
be open, it enters the first hole it can find. It often falls
a prey to the weasel, as well as to other larger enemies.
Its flesh is excellent food.

The Sage Hare, L. artemisia, Bach., found west of the
Missouri, is smaller than the Gray Rabbit.

Bachman's Hare, L Baclimani, Waterh., of the Lower
Rio Grande region, is also smaller than the Gray Rabbit.

Audubon's Hare, L. Audubonii, Baird, of California, is
a little smaller than L. syhaticus, the ears are longer than
the head, and the tail rather long. The color above is
mixed yellowish-brown and black, beneath pure white.
4* F

82 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Trowbridge's Hare, L. Trowbridgii, Baird, of California,
is smaller than Audubon's Hare, and the tail very short.

The Water Rabbit, L. aquations, Bach., of the Lower
Mississippi region, is larger than L. sylvaticus, is common
in wet grounds, often takes to the water when pursued,
and swims and dives with facility.

The Marsh Rabbit, L. palnstris, Bach., of South Caro-
lina to Florida, is about the size of L. sylvaticus, the head
and incisors disproportionately large, tail very short.

All the domestic varieties of Rabbits are supposed to
have sprung from the European Rabbit, L. cuniculus,
Linn., which lives in troops, and constructs burrows.

The Genus Lagomys--Y&as> is characterized by the
molars, which are -^, the short and rounded ears, short
hind legs, and the absence of a visible tail. Its mem-
bers are confined to the Northern hemisphere, and most-
ly to elevated regions. They are all small, the largest
not exceeding in size the Guinea Pig. In Siberia they
are called Pikas. Only one species is found in North
America.

The Little Chief Hare, L. princcps, Rich., of the South
Pass of the Rocky Mountains and northward, is about
eight inches in length, and appears in color like a young
rabbit, and utters a low bleat.

SUB-SECTION VIII.

THE ORDER OF EDENTATA, OR EDENTS.

THE Order of Edentata comprises all Mammals which
are destitute of incisor teeth, and some members of this
order have no teeth. Wagner recognizes three families,
Bradypoda or Sloth Family, Effodientia or Armadillo Fam-
ily, and Biclaviculata or Monotremata.

BRADYPODA, OR SLOTH FAMILY. - - This Family com-
prises animals which have canine and molar teeth, an-

EDENTATA: EFFODIENTIA. 83

terior limbs very long, much exceeding the posterior,
mammae pectoral, tail wanting or very short, and the
hair long and coarse. The fingers are united by the
skin, and only marked by enormous, compressed, crooked
nails, which when at rest are always bent towards the
palm of the hand or the sole of the foot. By their whole
structure, these animals are fitted to pass their lifetime
on trees, and it is said they never remove from a tree
until they have stripped it of its leaves. With their
long arms and long claws, they cling firmly around the
branches, and it is an interesting fact that they almost
always keep on the under side of the branch. In this
position they move and repose in perfect security. On
the ground they move awkwardly and with difficulty.
Observing this, and not knowing that the sloths are
strictly arboreal, some of the earlier zoologists regarded
their structure as unfortunate. Two species, one of the
size of the domestic cat and another larger, inhabit the
hot portions of South America.

The Megatherium, having a skeleton eighteen feet
long and eight feet high, only found fossil, is allied to
the sloths. The bones of this animal are of colossal di-
mensions, the femur being three times as thick as that
of the elephant. The Megalonyx and Mylodon are also
huge extinct sloth-like animals, whose remains, like those
of the Megatherium, are found in the superficial deposits
of South America, and also to some extent in those of the
United States, especially in South Carolina and Georgia.

EFFODIENTIA, OR ARMADILLO FAMILY.- -This Family
comprises Armadillos, Ant-eaters, and Pangolins, and is
characterized by a long, pointed muzzle.

Armadillos or Tatous are at once distinguished from
all other Mammals by their bony or horny armor. This
armor is not a consolidated framework, but is composed
of several parts, which are so arranged as to allow freedom

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 66.

in the bending of the body. One large shield covers the
head, another the shoulders, and another the rump, and
between the two last there are several parallel movable
bands of the same material. The tail in some cases is
covered with successive rings, and in others, as the legs,
with mere horny tubercles. All this armor is attached to
the skin of the body ; and it is made up of numerous many-
sided plates placed together as in inlaid work. The Ar-
madillos have a pointed muzzle, slightly extensible tongue,
and powerful claws. They inhabit the warm and hot
parts of America, dig burrows, and live upon vegetables,
insects, and worms. The Genus Dasypus, as limited by
Linnaeus, included all the species, but they are now dis-
tributed among several genera.

The Nine -banded
Armadillo, D. novcm-
cinctus, Linn., of Tex-
as to Paraguay, is
eighteen inches long
to the tail, which is
about eight inches,
and the body has nine
bands between the shield over the shoulders and that
over the rump. Other species have respectively three,
six, seven, and twelve intermediate bands.

The Giant Armadillo, D. gigas, Cuv., is about three
feet long without the tail, and has twelve or thirteen in-
termediate bands.

The Genus Clamyplwrus includes C. tmncatus, Harlan,
of Chili, which is six inches long, and has the back only
covered with a suit of transverse plates, and these are
attached to the body only along the spine. The body
is truncated behind.

The Glyptodon is a fossil Armadillo, found in South
America, whose shield is compared to a huge cask, be-

Nine-banded Armadillo, D. novem-cinctus, Linn.

EDENTATA '. MONOTREMATA. 85

ing five feet long, and the total length of the animal nine
feet.

The Genus Otycteropus comprises the Earth-Pig of
South Africa, celebrated for its unique teeth.

The Genus Mynnecophaga Ant-eaters is charac-
terized by a long muzzle, toothless mouth, filiform tongue
capable of great extension, and used to penetrate ant-
hills and nests of termites, whence the insects are with-
drawn, being entangled in the viscid saliva which covers
it. The body is covered with much hair, and the claws
of the fore feet are strong and trenchant, and suited to
tearing open ant-nests. These animals inhabit the warm
and hot parts of South America.

The Giant Ant-eater, M. jubata, Buff., is more than
four feet in length, grayish-brown with an oblique black
band edged with white upon each shoulder. Its tongue
can be elongated more than two feet. Other species are
much smaller than this, and one is no larger than a rat.

The Genus Manis - - Pangolins or Scaly Ant-eaters
of the Eastern hemisphere, differs from the last genus in
having the body, limbs, and tail clothed with large tren-
chant scales arranged like tiles, which they elevate when
they roll themselves into a ball, as they do when they
would ward off the attacks of an enemy.

The Short-tailed Pangolin, M. pendactyla, Linn., of the
East Indies, is three or four feet in length.

MONOTREMATA, OR ORNITHORHYNCHUS FAMILY. --This
Family comprises animals which vary widely from all
other Mammals, having their organic structure in many
respects much like that of Birds. They have double cla-
vicles, and well-developed marsupial bones, Waterhouse
places them at the end of the Marsupialia ; the males
have a peculiar spur on the hind feet, besides the ordi-
nary nails, and they have no external conch to their ears,
and their eyes are very small. They belong to Australia.

86

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Genus Echidna comprises those which have a
long, slender muzzle and extensible tongue, like the Ant-
eaters, and which are covered with spines.

The Genus Ornithorhynchus, or Platypus, is character-
ized by an elongated, enlarged, and flat muzzle, present-
ing the closest external resemblance to the bill of a
duck, and the more so as its edges are similarly furnished
with small transverse laminae. These animals have no
teeth except at the bottom of the mouth, and these are
without roots, with flat crowns, and composed of little
vertical tubes. There is a membrane to the fore feet

which not only unites the
toes, but extends far beyond
the nails ; in the hind feet
the membrane terminates
at the root of the nails, and
the tail is flat. The whole
body is covered with short,
brown fur. These animals
live in ponds and quiet
streams, and dig burrows

Ornithorhynchus, or Platypus. ...

in the banks, in which they

rear their young. Only one or two species are known.
They are less than two feet in length.

Fig. 67.

SUB-SECTION IX.

THE ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA, OR PACHYDERMS.

THE Order of Pachydermata comprises, according to
Cuvier, three families, Proboscidiana, Pachydermata Or-
dinaria, and Solipedes ; or, for each of these substituting
family names drawn respectively from a prominent genus,
or two genera in the second case, we may consider
the families as Elephanticlae, or Elephant Family, Rhinoce-
ridae or Rhinoceros Family, Suidae or Swine Family, and
Equidae or Horse Family. They are all herbivorous.

PACHYDERMATA : ELEPHANTID^E. 8/

ELEPHANTID.E, OR ELEPHANT FAMILY. This Family
comprises animals of colossal size, the largest and the
most powerful of all the land animals, with the nose
extended into a very long prehensile snout, upper incisors
developed into enormous tusks, head short and expanded
above by large sinuses, neck and body short and thick,
limbs long, without angles or bends, and the toes five
and united to the hoofs. Their gigantic proportions,
their peculiar organization, and their intelligence and
sagacity, combine to make them objects of great inter-
est to the common observer, as well as to the naturalist.
One of the remarkable features of the elephant is the
proboscis or trunk. This long and cylindrical organ is
composed of several thousand muscles variously inter-
laced, is extremely flexible, and endowed with the most
exquisite sensibility, and is terminated by an appendage
which serves as a sort of finger. This trunk, agile and
powerful, is at the same time the organ of smell, of touch,
of prehension, and of defence. With it its possessor seizes
everything he wishes to convey to his mouth, drink as
well as food ; thus obviating the necessity of a long neck,
which would be inconsistent with the enormous head and
heavy tusks, the latter weighing sixty to one hundred
pounds each. Elephants at the present day are confined
to the warm regions of the Eastern hemisphere. They
are seven to ten feet high, and ten to fifteen feet in length,
and covered with thick, nearly naked skin. One distinc-
tive characteristic is found in the grinders of these ani-
mals, the bodies of which are composed of a certain
number of vertical laminae, each one being formed of a
bony substance enveloped with enamel, and cemented
together by a third substance termed cortical. The
grinders succeed each other, not as our permanent teeth
succeed the milk ones, but from behind forwards, so that
as fast as one tooth becomes worn it is pushed forward

88 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

by that behind it. It is asserted that they shed their
teeth eight times, but their tusks are changed only once.

The Genus Elcphas comprises the Elephants proper.

The Asiatic Elephant, E. indicus, Cuv., of India, is
specially characterized by its oblong head, concave fore-
head, and the undulating sections of the laminae which
are seen on the crown of the grinders. This species has
smaller ears than the next, and four nails to each hind
foot. It has been used for a beast of burden from the
earliest times.

The African Elephant, E. africanus, Cuv., of Southern
Africa, is distinguished by its round head, convex fore-
head, large ears, and the lozenge-shaped figures on the
crown of the grinders. Both species are hunted for their
tusks, which furnish the world with ivory.

In both hemispheres the superficial deposits abound
with skeletons and parts of skeletons of elephants which
are now extinct. An elephant, covered with long, thick
hair, and wholly unlike anything now living, was found
encased in ice on the coast of Siberia. It was in such
a state of preservation that dogs fed upon the flesh, al-
though it is probable that it had been there thousands of
years.

The Genus Mastodon comprises extinct Pachyderms,
whose remains abound in the superficial accumulations
of America, as well as in those of the Old World. In
general appearance the Mastodon was much like the
elephant, but differed from the latter in the grinders, the
crowns of which are studded with large conical points.
A skeleton of Mastodon dug up at Newburgh, New York,
is seventeen feet long to the tail, which is six feet, and
the tusks are nearly eleven feet in length, the whole
weighing two thousand pounds. This splendid specimen
is in the museum of the late Dr. Warren of Boston.

RHINOCERID/E, OR RHINOCEROS FAMILY. This Fam-

PACHYDERMATA ! RHINOCERID^E. 89

ily comprises very thick and naked skinned Pachyderms,
which are distinguished from Elephantidas by the absence
of a proboscis, although the nose is much developed, by
the existence of small canines instead of enormous tusks,
and by incisors in both jaws. The feet are three- or four-
toed, hoofs of unequal size, limbs short, body, neck, and
head more or less elongated.

The Genus Rhinoceros comprises the largest of all land
animals except the elephant. They are huge, bulky ani-
mals on short, stout legs, supported by broad three-toed
feet, and the whole body is covered with an exceedingly
tough hide, which appears in several species in large
plaits or folds. From the upper surface of the muzzle,
where the bones are very thick and strong and somewhat
arched, there rises a horn composed of a solid mass of
horny fibres. These animals inhabit Africa, Asia, and
the Asiatic Archipelago. Seven species have been de-
scribed. They are stupid and ferocious, frequent wet
places, and feed upon herbs and tender branches.

The Indian Rhinoceros, R. indicus, Cuv., is about five
feet high, nine feet long, and the largest individuals weigh
six thousand pounds. Its horn is two to three feet in
length.

The Genus Hyrax comprises the Damans of Africa and
Asia, of the size of a rabbit, and which Cuvier calls rhi-
noceroses in miniature without the horn.

The Genus Hippopotamus is represented by only one
species, H. ampJiibins, Linn., which inhabits the rivers of
Africa. The body is massive, legs short, four hoofed toes
to each foot, head enormous and terminated by a large
inflated muzzle, eyes and ears small, and tail short. It
feeds upon* aquatic plants.

The Genus Tapims is characterized by the nose, which
resembles a small, fleshy proboscis, and by four toes to
the fore and three to the hind feet. Two species are
known.

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 68. The American Tapir, T. ameri-

canus, Linn., of South America, is
about the size of the ass, skin brown
and nearly naked, and the neck
fleshy, forming a sort of crest on
the nape. The Indian Tapir, T,
Head of the Tapir. iiidictis, Park., of Sumatra and ad-

jacent regions, is larger than the American species. The
remains of extinct Tapirs are found in Europe, one of
which must have nearly equalled the elephant in size.
The Genus Paleotherium and allied genera comprise
extinct, more or less tapir-like Pachyderms, the remains
of which abound in the Paris basin, and in other parts of
France, as well as in America. Both Rhinoceridae and
the next family are well represented in the fossils found
in Nebraska, a region rich in the remains of extinct
Pachyderms and other animals.

SUID/E, OR SWINE FAMILY. This Family comprises
much smaller Pachyderms than those before described,
with a more compressed body, pointed head, large ears,
blunt snout, slender legs, hoofs in pairs, and the skin
covered with bristles.

The Genus 5?/^--Hogs has the feet with two large
middle toes armed with strong hoofs, and two much
shorter lateral ones that hardly touch the ground. The
number of incisors is variable, the canines project from
the mouth and curve upwards, and the muzzle terminates
in a sort of truncated button fitted for turning up the
earth.

The Wild Boar, 5. scropha, Linn., is the parent stock
of all the varieties of the domestic hog. It has a short
and thick body, straight ears, black bristly hair, and
angular tusks which curve outwards and upwards. The
young are striped black and white. When wounded, the
wild boar is ferocious and formidable. These animals

PACHYDERMATA : EQUID.E. 9 1

defend themselves from the attacks of wild beasts by
forming a circle, and showing a savage front to the
enemy. They are indigenous to Europe, Asia, and Africa,
where in the wild regions they are still common.

The Babiroussa, S. babiroussa, Buff., of the Indian Ar-
chipelago, is of a lighter build, and is characterized by its
long slender tusks, the under ones turned vertically up-
wards, and the upper ones inclining spirally backwards.

The Genus PJiacochcerus Wart-bearing Hogs is char-
acterized by a fleshy lobe on each cheek, and enormous
tusks which incline upward. These hogs inhabit Africa.

The Genus Dicotyles Peccaries differs from the
preceding genera in its canines, which are directed like
those of animals in general, the hind feet three-toed, the
tail rudimentary, and there is a peculiar gland upon the
loins. Peccaries inhabit the warmer regions of America.

The Texas or Collared Peccary, or Mexican Hog, D.
torqnatits, Cuv., is about three feet long, weighs fifty or
sixty pounds, is of a general gray color with a whitish
band stretching obliquely from the angle of the lower
jaw over the shoulders.

The White-lipped Peccary, D. labiatns, Cuv., is larger
than the preceding one, and is very destructive to vege-
tation.

EOUID^E, OR HORSE FAMILY. This Family, called
Solepedes by Cuvier, comprises animals which have only
one apparent toe and a single hoof to each foot ; although
under the skin, on each side of their metatarsus and me-
tacarpus, there are spurs representing two lateral toes.
The Genus Equns comprises all the species.

The Horse, E. cabalhts, Linn., is indigenous to the Old
World, but has accompanied man, and become estab-
lished in every quarter of the globe. This noble animal
is the most beautiful, graceful, and the most useful to
man of all the Pachyderms. The Horse no longer exists

92 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

in a wild state, except in those countries where horses
once in a state of domestication have been set at liberty,
as in Tartary and in America. Here they live in troops,
each of which is led by an old male.

The varieties of the Horse are exceedingly numerous ;
but these varieties are all regarded as one species. The
Arab Horses are the most beautiful and the fleetest ; the
largest and strongest are from the coasts of the North
Sea; and the smallest from the North of Sweden and
from Corsica.

In South Carolina are found the fossil remains of a
horse which was probably indigenous to this country.

The Ass, E. asimts, Linn., is distinguished by its long
ears, and the tuft which terminates the tail. It is indige-
nous to the great deserts of Central Asia, where it still
exists in the wild state ; but, like the horse, it has been
domesticated, and is used for a beast of burden and for
draught in all parts of the world. It is noted for its
patience and great power of endurance. The hoarseness
of its bray depends upon two small cavities situated at
the bottom of the larynx. The Mule is the offspring of
this species and the horse.

The Zebra, E. zebra, Linn., Southern Africa, has the
general form of the ass, and is regularly marked through-
out with black and white transverse stripes.

The Dzigguetai, E. hcmionus, Pall., is intermediate, in
size and appearance, between the horse and the ass. Its
home is the dry regions of Central Asia.

The Quagga, E. qnaccha, Gm., of Africa, resembles both
the horse and zebra, but differs from both in specific char-
acteristics. The neck and shoulders are brown striped
transversely with white, the rump reddish gray, and the
tail and legs whitish. Its voice resembles the barking
of a dog.

The Onagga, E. montanus, Burchell, of Africa, is smaller

RUMINANTIA. 93

than the ass, of the general form of the quagga. Its color
is bay, with black stripes ; legs and tail white.

The so-called Herbivorous Whales which Cuvier grouped
with the Cetaceans are now placed with the Pachyderms,
with which they undoubtedly belong. They are whale-
like in general appearance, but their teeth have flat
crowns, and they have corresponding herbivorous habits.
They frequently leave the water, and crawl upon shore,
and feed upon the vegetation. Such are the Manati or
Cow Whales, and the Dugong. The former are about
fifteen feet long, and inhabit the warm parts of the At-
lantic ; and the Dugongs are found in the Pacific, and
much resemble the Manati.

SUB-SECTION X.

THE ORDER OF RUMINANTIA, OR RUMINANTS.

THE Order of Ruminantia is one of the best defined
of the Mammalia. It comprises all those animals which
masticate their food, which is wholly vegetable, the sec-
ond time. In accordance with this singular faculty, the
stomach, with few exceptions, is composed of four differ-
ent compartments, each having a special function. The
food, being hastily and partially chewed, is passed into
the largest stomach or 'paunch, and thence into the sec-
ond, called the honey-comb. This second stomach, small
and globular, seizes the food, moistens and compresses it
into little pellets, which afterwards ascend to the mouth
to be rechewed. The animal is at rest during this process,
which lasts until all the food first taken into the paunch
has been thus remasticated. The remasticated food de-
scends directly to the third stomach, called the leaflet ;
thence to the fourth, or caillette, which is the true organ
of digestion, analogous to the simple stomach of Mam-
mals generally.

94 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The feet of Ruminantia are terminated by two toes
and two hoofs, appearing like a single hoof which has
been cleft. Hence they are often called cloven-footed
animals. Behind the hoofs and higher up are generally
to be found two rudimentary toes. The two bones of the
metatarsus and metacarpus are generally united into one,
called the cannon. With few exceptions, the head of the
males, and in many cases of the females also, is armed
with horns. Excepting Camelidae, the Ruminantia have
no incisors in the upper jaw, but in nearly all cases eight
in the lower, which shut against a callous pad above. Be-
tween the incisors and the molars there is a vacant space,
which in some cases contains one or two canines. There
are six molars in each side of both jaws, which have their
flat crowns marked with two double crescents, the convex-
ity of which is turned inwards in the upper, and outwards
in the lower ones. Of all animals the Ruminants seem to
be the most useful to man, furnishing him with flesh and
milk for food, and hides for leather ; and many of them are
used for beasts of burden and for draught. The Rumi-
nantia may be divided into three great groups : those with
solid and usually deciduous horns, as the Deer, and called
the Cervidae, or Deer Family ; those with permanent
horns, consisting of an exterior hollow horn encasing a
bony process of the skull, as the Antelopes, Goats, Sheep,
and Oxen, and called the Cavicornia Family ; and those
which have no horns, as the Camels and Llamas, and
called the Camelidae, or Camel Family.

CERVIDAE, OR DEER FAMILY. This Family, as stated
above, comprises all Ruminants which have the horns
solid, and, excepting the Giraffe, deciduous. These prom-
inences, or horns, are at first covered with skin similar to
that upon the rest of the head. At their base is a ring
of bony tubercles, which, as they enlarge, compress and
obliterate the bloodvessels of that skin, and the latter be-

RUMINANTIA : CERVID.E.

95

comes dry and peels
off, leaving the horns
bare. At length the
horn separates from
the cranium and falls.
Others, however, and
larger ones, take their
places, and these in
turn are subject to the
same changes. Thus
the horns of these
animals are shed and
renewed periodically.
Such horns are called
antlers. The dental

Virginia Deer, C. virgin.ia.mis, Boddaert.

formula is incisors |, canines - - or wanting, and molars

6-6 ~

This Family is represented in almost every region
of the globe.

The Genus Alee Moose is characterized by very
broadly palmated horns, found only on the male, and the
nose wholly covered with hair except a small spot be-
tween the nostrils.

The Moose, A. americanus, Jardine, is the largest mem-
ber of the deer family, quite equalling the horse in bulk,
and standing very high ; and its broad antlers weigh from
fifty to seventy pounds. The muzzle is very broad and
prolonged, the ears long and hairy, the neck short and
thick, the latter and the shoulders covered by a sort of
mane, and the throat with long hair. The general color
is grayish-brown, and the hair is coarse and brittle. The
movements of the moose are rather heavy, but its speed is
great. It does not leap, but strides along without appar-
ent effort over fallen trees, fences, and other like obstruc-
tions. It is common in the unsettled parts of Maine and
New York, thence westward in corresponding latitudes,

96 VERTEBRATES \ MAMMALS.

and northward to the frozen regions. It frequents wooded
hillsides in winter, and the borders of lakes in summer.
Moose are hunted for their flesh, which is excellent.
They sometimes turn against the hunters before being
wounded or even shot at. Their usual mode of defence
consists in striking with their fore feet.

The Elk of the North of Europe is so nearly like our
moose, that the two have been regarded by most authors
as one species. *

The Great Irish Elk, Megaccros hibcrnicns, Owen, ten
feet high to the top of the horns, whose tips are ten feet
apart, is an extinct species found in marl at the bottom
of the peat bogs of Ireland.

The Genus Rangifcr - - Reindeer has the horns
broadly palmated at the tip, and present in both sexes ;
the nose wholly hairy, and the hoofs suboval and dilated.

The Reindeer, R. tarandus, Linn., of Northern Eu-
rope, is about four feet and a half long and three feet
high, and is celebrated for the services it renders to the
Laplanders, who possess large herds of them, and use
them as beasts of burden and for draught, their milk and
flesh for food, and their skins for clothing and covering
for sledges. The reindeer is very hardy, and draws the
sledge of its owner with great speed. In summer it feeds
upon the tender portions of shrubs, but in winter it scrapes
the snow from the ground, and feeds upon the so-called
reindeer-moss. The hair is brown in summer, white in

winter.

The Woodland Caribou or Reindeer, R. caribou, And.
& Bach., of Maine and New Brunswick and westward to
Lake Superior, is believed by some to be identical with
the European species.

The Barren Ground Caribou, R. groenlandicus, Baird,
is found in the Arctic regions of America and Green-
land, beyond the limit of trees.

RUMINANTIA : CERVID/E.
Fig. 70.

97

American Reindeer, or Woodland Caribou, K . caribou, Aud. & Bach.

The Genus Cervus Common Deer has the horns
more or less rounded, cylindrical or conical, sometimes
partly flattened, the nose tapering, naked, and moist.

The American Elk, or Wapiti, C. canadensis, Erxl., of
the northern and northwestern portions of the United
States, and northward to the fifty-seventh parallel, is
about the size of the horse, the horns five to six feet
long and much branched, the color in summer light
chestnut-red, and in winter grayish.

The Virginia Deer, C. virginianus, Bodd., (Fig. 69,) of
the United States east of the Missouri River, is one of the
most beautiful and graceful of all the deer. It is very
timid, and, when alarmed, bounds through the forest and
over the plains with almost incredible velocity. The
weight of an adult is about two hundred pounds. The
color, light fawn in summer, reddish-gray in winter, the
under part of the throat and tail always white. The Vir-

9 8

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

Fig. 71.

American Elk, or Wapiti, C. canadcnsis, Erxl.

ginia Deer is hunted for its flesh, which is considered one
of the luxuries of the table during the winter months.

The White-tailed Deer, C. leucurus, Douglas, is found
from the Upper Missouri and Platte to the Columbia
River and Washington Territory.

The Mule Deer, C. macrotis, Say, is found from the
Upper Missouri to' Oregon.

The Columbia Black-tailed Deer, C. columbianns, Rich.,
is confined to the Pacific coast of North America.

The Stag or Red Deer, C. dapJins, Linn., inhabits the
forests of all Europe, and of the temperate parts.of Asia.
Its weight is about two or three hundred pounds. The
Stag-hunt has always ranked as the most fashionable of
field and forest sports.

RUMINANTIA : CERVID.E.

99

Fig. 72.

The Daim or Fallow Deer, C. damn, Linn., originally
from Barbary, but now common throughout Europe, is
smaller than the stag, and is the species common in
parks of the wealthy, especially in England.

The Axis Deer, C. axis, Linn., indigenous to India, but
domesticated in Europe, is about the size of the Fallow
Deer, and is always of a rich fawn color spotted with
white.

The European Roebuck, C. caprcolus, Linn., is a very
small deer weighing only about sixty pounds, and in-
habiting the high mountains of the temperate parts of
Europe.

The Genus Moschns Musk Deer is characterized
by the absence of horns, and by having a long canine
tooth on each side of the upper jaw. The members of
this genus are light and elegant in their appearance.

The Musk Deer, M. moschifc-
rits, Linn., is the most celebrated
species, being the one which fur-
nishes the well-known musk of
commerce. This animal is about
the size of the common goat, has
scarcely any tail, and is covered
with coarse and brittle hairs. It
inhabits Thibet and the adjacent
countries.

The Genus Camelopardalis
Giraffe is characterized by both sexes having conical
horns, which are always covered with a hairy skin, and
which are never shed. Only one species, the Giraffe, C.
girafa, F. Cuv., of the deserts of Africa, is known. It is
one of the most remarkable animals in existence in re-
spect to the great length of the neck and the dispropor-
tionate length of the fore legs. Its head in some cases
is eighteen feet from the ground. Its hair is short and

Musk Deer.

I OO VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

gray, sprinkled with fawn-colored angular spots, and it
has a small fawn-colored and gray mane. It is gentle
in disposition, and feeds upon leaves of trees.

CAVICORNIA, OR HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANT FAMILY.
This Family, as stated above, comprises all the Rumi-
nants which have the horns permanent, hollow, and en-
closing a process of the frontal bone. The Cavicornia
may be divided into three sub-families, which are here
presented together, that their resemblances and differ-
ences may be seen at a glance :

Antilopinae, or Antelopes, characterized by horns
rounded or conical, without sharp angles, variously
curved, annulated or wrinkled, and black ; the muzzle
elongated, attenuated, generally hairy, and the end of
the upper lip with a shallow groove.

Ovinse, or Sheep and Goats, characterized by horns
more or less angular and compressed, usually twisted and
curved backwards, wrinkled, and generally dull yellowish-
brown. The muzzle is broader than in the antelopes,
generally hairy, and with a shallow groove.

Bovine, or Oxen, characterized by horns rounded,
muzzle broad, usually naked, and without a vertical fur-
row at the end.

i. Antilopinae, or Antelopes, are very numerous in spe-
cies, no less than ninety having been described, varying
in size from the light and graceful gazelle and chamois
to those as large as the largest horse. Two of these be-
long to North America, two to Europe, and the rest to
Southern Asia and to Africa, but mainly to Africa.

The Genus Antilocapra is characterized by erect horns,
the base compressed, with a flattened process in front,
the end conical and recurved. The nose is sheep-like,
entirely hairy at the end except a narrow central line ;
the tail is very short, and there are no false hoofs behind
the large ones.

RUMINANTIA : CAVICORNIA.

101

Pronghorn Antelope, A . americana, Ord.

The Prong-horn Ante-
lope or Cabree, A. amcri-
cana, Ord, of the plains
west of the Missouri Riv-
er, from the Lower Rio
Grande to the Saskatcha-
wan, and westward to the
Cascade and Coast Range
of the Pacific slope, ex-
ceeds in size the domestic
sheep, and has longer legs
and a longer and more
erect neck. The hair is
very coarse and thick ;
the color above yellowish-
brown, the entire under parts and a square patch on the
rump white ; the horns, hoofs, and naked parts of the
nose black. About half-way up the horns on their an-
terior face there is a branch or prong, from which the
animal gets its popular name.

The Genus Aploccrus is characterized by horns which
are small, conical, nearly
erect, slightly inclined,
recurved at the tip, and
ringed at the base.

The Mountain Goat, A.
nwntanus, Rich., of the
Rocky Mountains, is an
antelope. Its jet-black,
polished, slender, and
conical horns are much
like those of the chamois.
It is covered with long
and pendent hair, and the

Color is white. Mountain Goat, A. montamis, Rich.

Fig- 74-

IO2

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Genus Antilope comprises Antelopes proper.

Fig. 7S . The Gazelle, A. dorcas, Linn.,

of the North of Africa, is a beau-
tiful and graceful antelope about
the size of the roebuck, with
large black horns, and of a fawn
color above and white beneath?
with a brown band along each
flank. The soft expression of
the eye of the gazelle furnishes
numerous images to the Arabian

Gazelle, A . dorcas, Linn. DOCtS

The Springbok, A. cuchorc, Forster, found in large
herds in South Africa, is an antelope larger than the
gazelle, but of the same form and color, and is remark-
able for a fold of the skin of the croup, which opens and
expands at every bound of the animal, disclosing the bril-
liant white hair with which the fold is lined. It gets its
name from its habit of jumping upward whenever it is
excited. In seasons of drought these beautiful animals
are seen in herds of ten to twenty thousand, wandering
over the country in search of pasturage.

The Saiga, A. saiga, Pall., of Poland and Russia, resem-
bles A. dorcas, but is larger, and its horns are transparent.

The Chamois, A. nipicapra, Linn.,
of the middle regions of the high
mountains of Western Europe, is
about the size of a goat, of a deep
brown color, and its horns towards
the summit are bent abruptly back-
ward like a hook. The chamois is
exceedingly shy, and on the slight-
est alarm bounds away with a speed
that is truly wonderful, over rocks,
chamois, A. mpicapra, Linn, glaciers, along the brinks of dizzy

Fig. 76.

RUMINANTIA : CAVICORNIA. IO3

heights, and up and down precipices where it would seem
no animal could get a foothold, often leaping upon a
shelf of rock of scarcely more than a hand's breadth, or just
large enough to receive its four feet placed close together.

The Long-horned Antelope or Oryx, A. oryx, Pall., of
Central and Southern Africa, is as large as the stag, and
has straight, slender, round and pointed horns two or
three feet long, with the lower third obliquely annulated.
The tail is long and blackish, and the hairs of the spine are
directed towards the neck. It is often called Gemsbok.

The Canna or Eland, A. orcas, Pall, of South Africa,
is an antelope which attains the weight of eight hun-
dred or a thousand pounds, and has horns very long and
straight, and with a spiral ridge.

The Koodo, A. strcpciseros, Pall., is another very large
antelope of the same region as the preceding one.

The Gnu, A. gnu, Gm., is a curious animal which Cuvier
describes among the antelopes, and which is one of the
most extraordinary forms of life to be found among the
Ruminantia. Its head and horns remind us of the Cape
Buffalo ; the body, mane, and tail resemble those of a
horse, and its feet are as light as those of a stag. The
muzzle is large, flattened, and encircled with projecting
hairs, and the general color is brownish.

2. Ovinse, or Sheep and Goats.

The Genus Ovis Sheep is characterized by horns
which are directed backwards, and then incline more or
less spirally forwards ; the chanfrin is convex, and there
is no beard on the chin, as in the goats.

The Mountain Sheep or Big Horn, O. montana, Cuv.,
of the Rocky Mountains, is much larger than the do-
mestic sheep, with very large horns. The female has
smaller horns similar to those of the goat. A large in-
dividual of this species weighs about three hundred and
fifty pounds. The Argali of Siberia, O. ammon, Linn., is

104

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

regarded by Cu-
vier as identi-
cal with the Big
Horn. TheMou-
flon of Sardinia,
O. imtsimon, Pall,
differs in being
smaller, and in
the smallness or
deficiency of the
horns of the fe-
male.

The Mouflon
of Barbary, O.
tragdapJins, Cuv. f
has soft and red-
dish hair, with a
long mane under

thp

It is

Mountain Sheep, or Big-horn, O. montana, Cuv.

from the Mouflon and Argali that our numerous do-
mestic varieties are supposed to have sprung. Of these
the Merino from Spain is one of the most noted, on ac-
count of the length and the fineness of its wool. Persia,
and countries of Asia farther east, furnish a variety whose
tail is a double globe of fat. Syria and Egypt have a
variety whose tail is so long, and so loaded with fat, that
it attains a weight of fifty to one hundred pounds.

The Genus Capra Goats is characterized by horns
directed upwards and backwards ; and the chin is gen-
erally furnished with a long beard, and the chanfrin is
generally concave. This genus is not represented in
America, the so-called Rocky Mountain Goat being con-
sidered an antelope, as before stated. Goats are exceed-
ingly active, and the wild species inhabit high and rugged
parts of the mountains, where they subsist upon coarse

RUMINANTIA: CAVICORNIA. 105

grass, and leaves, and shoots of low shrubs which such
localities afford. They are sure of foot, and bound along
the verge of dizzy heights with great rapidity, and with
an air of conscious security, which shows how well they
are adapted to the regions which they inhabit.

The Wild Goat, C. (Zgragiis, Gm., is found in herds on
the mountains of Persia, where it is called Paseng, and
on other mountains of the Eastern hemisphere. This
is regarded as the parent stock of all the numerous do-
mestic varieties.

The Angora Goat of Asia Minor is noted for furnishing
the softest and most silky hair, which is largely manufac-
tured by the inhabitants of Angora, no less than thirteen
million pounds of fabrics and yarns being exported by
them annually.

The Cashmere Goat of Thibet is the most celebrated
of all for its fine wool. This goat is covered with long
silky hair, under which is a delicate gray wool, about
three ounces of which are obtained from a single indi-
vidual ; and it is of this wool that the renowned Cash-
mere shawls are made.

The Ibex, C. ibex, Linn., of the high mountains of the
Old World, is distinguished from all the preceding by its
large horns, square in front, and marked with transverse
and prominent ridges.

The Caucasian Ibex, C. caucasica, Guldenst., is distin-
guished by its large triangular horns, but not square in
front.

3. Bovinse, or Oxen.

The Genus Ovibos is characterized by horns curving
outward and downwards, hairy muffle except between
the nostrils, tail very short, hoofs broad and inflexed at
the tips, and the hair long and pendent.

The Musk Ox, O. moschatus, Blainville, of the Barren
Grounds of Arctic America, is about the size of a two-
s'

io6

VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

year-old cow ; the
horns united on
the summit of the
head, flat, broad,
bent down against
the cheek, with the
points turned up.
The color is brown-
ish-black.

The Genus Bos
is characterized by

Musk Ox, O. moschatus, Blainville. homS Curving OUt-

wards and upwards, broad naked muzzle, wide space be-
tween the nostrils, large ears, rather long tail, and broad
hoofs. It comprises about ten species.

The Common Ox, B. taurus, Linn., so serviceable to
man, is too well known to need description. Its varieties
are numerous. The Zebu is a variety inhabiting India,
which has a large hump of fat upon the back between
the shoulders. The male is known as the Brahmin Bull,
and is held sacred by the Hindoos.

The American Buffalo, B. amcricanus, Gm., formerly
inhabiting nearly all North America, but now only the
Western plains, is the largest quadruped of America, be-
ing of the size of a large domestic ox, and characterized
by a large head, which is carried low, broad forehead,
broad full chest, large hump between the shoulders, nar-
row loins, and comparatively slender legs. The horns,
set far apart, are thick at base, and taper rapidly to a
sharp point. The Buffalo is covered with a thick coat
of hair ; that upon the head, neck, hump, shoulders, and
fore legs to the knees, is very long and shaggy. The
horns, hoofs, and hair except the middle of the back,
which is brownish are black. The Buffalo is found
in herds from a score to several thousand in number.

RUMINANTIA : CAVICORNIA.

107

Though naturally timid, they are furious and formidable
when wounded by the hunter.

Fig. 79.

American Buffalo, B. americanus, Gm.

The Aurochs, or Bison of the ancients, B. urns, Gm.,
formerly an inhabitant of all Europe, but now found only
in the forests of Lithuania and of the Caucasus, is closely
related to the American Buffalo.

The Buffalo of Southern Europe, B. babulus, Linn.,
introduced from India, is related to the Arni, B. ami,
Shaw, of India, whose enormous horns are ten feet from
tip to tip.

The Cape Buffalo, B. caffcr, Sparm., of South Africa, is
characterized by its large horns, which are so wide at the
base that they nearly cover the forehead. It is a very
large animal, with a very ferocious disposition.

The Grunting Cow, or Yak, of Tartary, B. grunniciis,
Pall., is smaller than any of the preceding, with a tail re-
sembling that of a horse, and a long mane upon the back.
It makes a grunting noise similar to that of a hog.

Fossil remains of extinct Bovinae are found in various
parts of North America ; also in the Old World.

CAMELID.E, OR CAMEL FAMILY. This Family com-

loS VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

prises the Camels of the Old World and the Llamas of
the New.

The Genus Camclus comprises the Camels, which have
the two toes united below nearly to the point by a com-
mon sole, and the back furnished with humps of fat.
They are natives of Central and Southwestern Asia, and
from earliest times have been celebrated for their impor-
tant services to the inhabitants of the arid regions of the
East. Possessed of great strength and .power of endur-
ance, capable of subsisting on the coarsest and most
scanty vegetation, able to travel for days without drink-
ing, having feet suited to walking over sand, and withal
gentle and obedient, the Camel is as indispensable to the
merchant and traveller for traversing the deserts of Asia
and Africa, as are vessels for crossing the ocean. The
Camel can bear from five hundred to one thousand pounds
during a long journey. It kneels to receive and to be
relieved of its load. With an intuitive knowledge of its
own powers, it obstinately refuses to rise when a greater
load is put upon it than it can comfortably bear. The
power of resisting thirst is due to the large number of
cells on the walls of the paunch, in which is stored an
extra supply of water. Camels have canine teeth in
both jaws, two pointed teeth in the incisor bone, six
incisors in the lower jaw, and eighteen to twenty molars ;
peculiarities unknown among all other Ruminants.

The Two-humped Camel, C. bactrianus, Cuv., is origi-
nally from Central Asia. This species is ten feet long,
and eight feet high between the humps.

The One-humped Camel, C. dromcdarius, Linn., smaller
than the last, has spread from Arabia into Persia, Syria,
and Africa. The Dromedary is a variety of this species.

The Genus Anchcnia Llamas differs from the pre-
ceding in having the two toes separate, and in the absence
of humps. The Llamas are confined to South America,

CETACEA.

Fig. 80.

and ( chiefly to the Andes, and are the American repre-
sentatives of the Camels.

The Llama, or Guanaco, A. llacma, Linn., is about
the size of the Stag, and cov-
ered with coarse, chestnut-
colored hair. This species
was early domesticated and
extensively used as a beast
of burden, in which capacity
it is still employed. The Al-
paca is a variety with long,
woolly hair, which furnishes
material for the best of fab-
rics.

The Paco or Vicuna, A.
vicunna, Linn., is of the size Llama.

of a sheep, and covered with fawn-colored wool, which is
also used in the manufacture of valuable fabrics.

Remains of extinct Camelidae are found in the tertiary
rocks of Nebraska.

SUB-SECTION XI.

THE ORDER OF CETACEA, OR CETACEANS.

THE Order of Cetacea comprises Mammalia which are
formed for an exclusive residence in the water. They
have no hind feet, two small bones suspended in the flesh
being the only vestiges of posterior extremities ; their an-
terior members closely resemble fins ; and, excepting the
tail, which spreads horizontally, their general appear-
ance is decidedly fish-like. They are, however, genuine
Mammals, have warm blood, respire by means of lungs,
come frequently to the surface of the water to take in
fresh supplies of air, though some can remain be-
neath the water for half an hour or more, and pro-

no VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

duce and nourish their young in the same manner as
other Mammals. They are destitute of hair, and cov-
ered with a smooth skin, under which is a thick layer
of fat called blubber. They propel themselves with ra-
pidity by the downward and upward movement of the
tail. In the most prominent members of the Cetacea
the breathing-hole, which corresponds to the nostrils of
other animals, is situated on the top of the head, and
through this the water which has been taken into the
mouth is spouted to a great height, and this spouting or
blowing may be seen at great distances, and often serves
to reveal these animals when they would otherwise be
unobserved. The species are numerous ; and there are
at least three families, Balaenidse or Right-Whale Fam-
ily, Physeteridas or Sperm-Whale Family, and Delphinidae
or Dolphin Family. The first two have the head exces-
sively large.

BALyENiD^E, OR RIGHT- WHALE FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises Whales which have no real teeth, but the
two sides of their upper jaw, which is keel-shaped, are
furnished with rows of vertical horny plates, called whale-
bone, formed of a sort of fibrous horn, and which are
fringed on their inner edges. This arrangement is adapt-
ed to the nature of the food of these whales, which con-
sists of small marine zoophytes, mollusks, and crustaceans.
Fig. 81. Swimming through schools of

these little animals, the Whale
engulfs myriads of them at
once in its enormous mouth ;
and the water taken with them
is strained off through the
fringes, and all the animals,
of Right""wfc[ir, showing the even tn e smallest, retained and

whalebone. Swallowed.

The Genus Balczna comprises the Right Whales proper.

CETACEA I BAUENID^E.

Ill

The Great Green-
land, or Right Whale,
B. mysticctus, Linn., at-
tains the length of sev-
enty feet, and is some-
times furnished with
blubber two or three
feet in thickness. This
species supplies the
black, flexible whale-
bone, in slabs of eight
to ten feet in length,
an individual yielding
six to nine hundred
strips or slabs on each
side of the palate. It
also furnishes more oil
than any other whale,
a single individual
yielding, in some cases,
one hundred and twen-
ty tuns. The Right
Whale is confined to
the frigid regions, and
is common to the North
Atlantic and North Pa-
cific, but is never found
in the tropics. It has
the seven cervical ver-
tebrae consolidated in-
to one.

B. australis is a spe-
cies confined to the
Antartic regions, and
is smaller than the
Greenland Whale.

Fig. 82.

Right Whale, B. mysticetus, Linn.

I I 2 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS.

The Genus Balcsnoptera comprises Whales with a dor-
sal fin and short baleen, and known under the names of
Fin-backs, Razor-backs, and Rorquals. They equal and
in many cases much exceed the B. mysticctus in length,
some have been seen one hundred feet long, but yield
far less oil. They are exceedingly powerful and rapid in
their movements, and are captured with the greatest dif-
ficulty and danger. One or two species are common on
the North Atlantic coast of America.

PHYSETERIDjE, OR SPERM-WHALE FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises Whales with excessively enlarged heads,
and whose upper jaw has neither teeth nor whalebone,
and whose lower jaw is narrow, elongated, and corre-
sponds to a furrow in the upper one, and is armed on
each side with a range of cylindrical or conical teeth,
which, when the mouth is closed, fit corresponding cavi-
ties in the upper jaw. The upper portion of the head
Fig. 8 3 . consists mainly of

large cavities, sepa-
rated and covered by
cartilages, and filled
with an oil which be-
comes fixed as it cools,
and is known under
the name of sperma-

Head of Sperm Whale. ^^ J^e body yields

sperm oil. The substance known under the name of am-
bergris is a concretion formed in the intestines of Sperm
Whales. These animals inhabit deep, tropical, and tem-
perate seas, and never enter the Polar regions.

The Genus PJiyseter comprises the Sperm Whales
proper.

The Great Sperm Whale or Cachelot, P. macrocephalus,
Shaw, is the largest and most important species, equal-
ling the Right Whale in size, averaging sixty feet in

CETACEA: DELPHINIDVE. 113

length. The largest specimen recorded was seventy-six
feet in length, and thirty-eight feet in girth. The head
constitutes one third of the whole animal. In this spe-
cies the atlas is separate, but all the rest of the cervical
vertebrae are consolidated into one. The Sperm Whale
is usually found in companies of twenty to one hundred
or more, and these companies are composed of females
and their young and an old male. The Sperm-Whale
fishery has employed at one time six hundred American
vessels and fifteen thousand American seamen.

DELPHINID^E, OR DOLPHIN FAMILY. This Family com-
prises Cetaceans which are included in the Linnaean ge-
nus Dolphinus, and whose head bears the usual propor-
tion to the body, and whose jaws are both armed with
simple and generally conical teeth, which they shed more
or less with age. They live in communities, and are the
most rapacious of the whole order.

The Genus Delphinus Dolphins proper is charac-
terized by a convex forehead and a beak-like muzzle.
The species are quite numerous, varying from six to
fifteen feet in length, and are celebrated for their great
velocity of movement.

The Common Dolphin, D. delphis, Linn., of all seas, is
six to ten feet long, with from forty to forty-seven slender,
arcuate, and pointed teeth on each side, both above and

Fig. 84.

Common Dolphin, D. del/this, Linn.

below ; the color black above and white beneath. This
is the Dolphin of the ancients, so celebrated for its al-
leged docility and fondness for music.

ii4 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS.

The Genus PJwccena Porpoises and Grampuses is
distinguished from the Dolphins proper by a short and
convex muzzle. The members of this genus are from
four to twenty feet in length, and, like dolphins, are often
seen in large herds.

The Common Porpoise, D. pJioccena, Linn., is the small-
est of the Cetaceans, being only four or five feet long ;
the color blackish above, whitish below.

The Grampus or Killer, D. orca, Cuv., is twenty to
twenty-five feet long, and is said to attack the whale.

The Blackfish or Round-headed Grampus, D. globiceps,
Cuv., is twenty feet long ; shining bluish-black above,
lighter below.

The White Grampus or White Whale, D. leucus, Gm.,
Beluga borcalis, Lesson, of the Northern regions, is ten
to twenty or more feet in length, with the dorsal fin small,

Fig. 85.

White Whale, D. leucus, Gm.

and for a Cetacean with an unusually distinct neck, the
vertebrae of which are separate, and move freely upon one
another. It often ascends rivers for a considerable dis-
tance, and is common in the St. Lawrence. A specimen
of this animal, about ten feet long, and weighing about
seven hundred pounds, was kept in a tank in the Aqua-
rial Gardens, Boston, for about two years. He was quite
docile, learned to recognize his keeper, and would come
and take food from his hand. He was trained to the har-
ness, and drew a young lady in a car prepared for the
purpose.

The Genus Monodon Narwhal has no true teeth,

BIRDS. 115

but a long, straight, pointed tusk implanted in the inter-
maxillary bone, and directed in the line of the body.
The developed tusk is on the left side ; an undeveloped
one exists on the right side.

The Narwhal, M. monoceros, Linn., resembles a por-
poise except in its spirally furrowed tusk, sometimes ten
feet long. These animals inhabit the Arctic seas, and
are pursued and skilfully captured by the Esquimaux.

Remains of extinct Cetacea occur in various parts of
North America, as well as in the Old World. The Zeu-
glodon was a Cetacean seventy feet long, whose remains
abound in the Southern States, especially in Alabama.

SECTION II.

THE CLASS OF BIRDS.

THE Class of Birds comprises all oviparous vertebrates
which are clothed with feathers, furnished with a bill,
and organized for flight. They have warm blood, and
a complete double circulation. They are all bipeds ; the
body is inclined before their feet, the thighs are directed
forward, and the toes elongated, forming a broad sup-
porting base. The head and neck are more or less pro-
longed, the latter very flexible, and generally containing
twelve or more vertebrae. The length of the neck and
its great flexibility enable these animals to touch every
part of the body with the bill. The trunk, serving as a
point of support for the extended locomotive members,
has little flexibility, the vertebrae of this portion being
more or less firmly joined together. The pelvis is much
lengthened to furnish points of attachment for the muscles
of the thighs ; and the sternum is of great extent, to bear
the extensive muscles for moving the wings in flight.
The sternal as well as the vertebral parts of the ribs are

n6 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

Fig. 86.

Skeleton of a Bird.

hd, head ; cv, cervical vertebrae ; /, pelvis ; sc, scapula : cl, clavicle ; cd, corocoid bone,
formerly regarded as the clavicle ; st, sternum ; h, humerus ; it, ulna ; r, radius ; c, car-
pus ; me, metacarpus ; ph and ///, phalanges, th being the thumb ; fe, femur ; ft, fibula
and tibia, more or less united; t, tibia, where the fibula is no longer seen, or only faintly
indicated ; ts, tarsus ; mt, metatarsus more or less consolidated with the tarsus ; ps, pha-
langes, or toes.

ossified in order to give greater strength to the trunk ;
and a small bone is attached obliquely across each rib,
as a sort of cross-beam, which also contributes to the
same result. The shoulders, which would otherwise be
brought together by the effort of flying, are kept apart
by two bony braces. Regarding the wrist as part of the
hand, the wings are each made up of three sections,
the arm, forearm, and hand, thus corresponding to the
anterior extremities of man and other Mammals. The
wings are furnished throughout their whole length with a
range of quills, thus presenting a great surface to the air.
The quills attached to the hand are called primaries, and
are the largest and firmest ; those attached to the fore-

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

117

Fig. 87.

Occiput . .

Parotic region'
Nape . .

Tertiaries .

Secondaries

Primaries . .
Low. coverts
Tail ....

Thumb .

-Crown.
Forehead.
..Nasal fossa.

Up. mandible

Lower "

Throat.

Fore neck.

Spur, quills.
Sm. coverts.

Breast.
Mid. coverts.
Large "

Belly.
Tibia.

Tarsus.

Interior toe.
Middle
Exterior "

Showing the names of some of the principal parts of a Bird.

arm, secondaries ; to the humerus, tertiaries. Ranges of
shorter feathers cover the base of the quills above and
below, and are called coverts. The feathers that grow
from the shoulder are called scapulars ; those from the
thumb, spurious quills. The bony part of the tail is very
short, but, like the wings, has a range of long quills, with
upper and lower coverts, which serve both for ornament,
and to aid in supporting the animal in the air. Both the
quills and feathers consist of two parts, the shaft and the
vane ; the former is the axis, and the latter the expanded
portion. The vane consists of laminae, which are con-
nected by minute barbs along their edges, and thus ren-
dered firm to resist the air. There are, however, on
every bird downy feathers, or such as do not have the
laminae united. The feathers of Birds do not grow from
the entire surface of the body, but are symmetrically and
systematically arranged in rows and patches, with bare
intervening spaces ; and the arrangement is different in
different groups, and may yet be made an important ele-
ment in classification. The hind locomotive members

ii8 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

of birds are each composed of a femur ; a tibia and fibula,
the last two more or less united ; a tarsus and metatarsus,
the latter -more or less merged in the former ; and gener-
ally of three toes before and a thumb behind, the latter,
however, sometimes wanting. The tibia and fibula are
connected with the femur by an articulation with a spring,
which keeps up the extension without any effort on the
part of the muscles. And here it may be stated as an
interesting fact, that there is a series of muscles reaching
from the pelvis to the toes, and so arranged that the
mere weight of the bird flexes the toes, thus enabling it
to sleep in perfect security, even though perched on one
foot. The number of joints in the thumb is two, in the
next toe three, in the next four, and in the outer one five.
The bones of birds are hollow ; hence very light in com-
parison to their size and strength.

The respiratory system of birds is extensive ; the air
filling not only the lungs, but cells in other parts of the
body, and even the cavities of the bones. Thus the light-
ness of the bones and the numerous air-cavities combine
to diminish the specific gravity of the animal, and to
adapt it to the medium in which it moves. The rings
of the trachea are entire. At its bifurcation there is
a glottis, generally furnished with peculiar muscles, and
called the inferior larynx ; and this is the point where
the voice of birds is produced. The superior larynx is
very simple. It enters the inferior, but has little to do
with the voice.

The horny covering upon the mandibles performs the
functions of teeth, and in some species the edges are so
notched as to resemble real teeth. The stomach is com-
posed of three parts : the crop, which is an enlargement
of the oesophagus ; a membranous stomach, in whose walls
are numerous glands which furnish juices to moisten the
food ; and the gizzard, where the food is finally digested.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. I IQ

The brain of birds is comparatively very large. The
eyes are so constructed, that with equal facility they can
distinguish objects near or remote. Besides the two or-
dinary eyelids, there is a third one placed at the inner
angle, and which can instantly be drawn over the eye
like a curtain. It is called the nictitating membrane,
and serves a most important office in the protection of
the eye. The ear has but a single small bone, formed of
one branch that adheres to the tympanum, and of another
terminating in a plate that rests upon the fenestra ovalis ;
the cochlea is a slightly arcuated cone, but the semi-
circular canals are large. Nocturnal birds alone have
an external conch. The organ of smell is concealed in
the base of the bill. The tongue has but little muscular
substance, and the taste is probably not very delicate.

The plumage of birds is rendered water-proof by the
oil with which they dress their feathers, and which is fur-
nished by a special gland at the hind part of the body.

Birds moult their feathers twice a year. In some, the
winter plumage differs in its colors from that of summer.
In a majority of cases the colors of the male are more
brilliant than those of the female ; and when this is the
case, the young of both sexes resemble the adult female.
When the adult male and female are of the same color,
their young have colors peculiar to themselves.

Birds lay eggs, and sit upon them to hatch them. The
egg in the ovary consists merely of the part we call yolk ;
it imbibes the external fluid called the white in the upper
part of the oviduct, and becomes covered with a shell at
the bottom of the same canal. The young bird of every
kind has a horny point at the extremity of the bill, with
which it breaks the shell, and which falls off a few days
after it is hatched. This may be seen by every one on
the bill of the young chicken. Most birds build nests in
which to lay their eggs, and it is an interesting fact that

I2O VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

all individuals of a species build alike, and, in a given
locality, of the same kinds of material. Their skill and
industry are in the highest degree remarkable, but can-
not be dwelt upon here. Their ability to anticipate
atmospheric changes is truly wonderful, and caused the
ancients to attribute to them the power of divination.
Cuvier says that on this faculty depends the instinct
which acts upon birds of passage, prompting them to
seek the sunny climes on the approach of winter, and
their old homes as summer comes again.

The longevity of birds is regarded as about ten times
as great as the period which they require to come to
maturity or full growth. Domestic fowls live to the age
of twenty years ; parrots, thirty years ; geese, fifty ; while
swans, ravens, and eagles are said to live a century.

The Class of Birds comprises ten to twelve thousand
species, and is divided into seven Orders * : the Order of
Raptores or Raveners, the Order of Scansores or Climb-
ers, the Order of Insessores or Perchers, the Order of
Rasores or Scratchers, the Order of Cursores or Runners,
the Order of Grallatores or Waders, and the Order of
Natatores or Swimmers.

SUB-SECTION I.

THE ORDER OF RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY.

THE Order of Raptores comprises all Birds of Prey, or
those which, with few exceptions, pursue and capture
birds and other animals for food. They are mostly of

* Bonaparte and some others divide the Class of Birds into two Sub-
classes, called ALTRICES aijd PRECOCES, the former comprising those whose
young hatch in a very feeble condition, and require to be fed for a consider-
able time from the bill of the parent, and the latter those whose young are
able to run about and pick up food for themselves as soon as hatched.
Each of these Sub-classes is divided into orders which stand in parallel
series.

RAPTORES : VULTURID^:. 121

large size, and are characterized by strong, hooked bills,
sharp claws, great extent of wing, and very powerful
muscles ; and the females are generally larger than the
males. The plumage of the young and of the immature
differs greatly from that of the adult. They live in pairs,
and choose their mates for life. The Raptores comprise
three families, Vulturidae or Vulture Family, Falconidae
or Falcon Family, and Strigidae or Owl Family.

VuLTURiDvE, OR VULTURE FAMILY. This Family
comprises rapacious birds which have the eyes on a level
with the sides of the head, which is partially naked or
only sparsely covered with downy feathers. The tal-
ons are comparatively slender, and but little curved.
Vultures are cowardly, seldom capturing prey unless
forced to do so by hunger, preferring to feed on dead
and decaying animals which they find, and which either
by scent or sight, or both together, they discover at great
distances. Of all animals, they are probably the most
gluttonous and loathsome in their manner of feeding.
They are found in nearly all countries of both hemi-
spheres.

The Genus Vultur Vultures proper comprises the
Vultures of the Old World, and the King of Vultures, and
the Condor of South America.

The Condor, V. gryphus, Linn., of the Andes, is the
largest of all the birds of prey, being four feet long, and
having a spread of wing of nine feet ; and it is said in
some cases the spread is fourteen feet. This gigantic
bird perches upon the high cliffs of the mountains till
impelled by hunger, when it soars away, sometimes at
the immense height of six miles, keenly surveying the
surrounding country for its accustomed food.

The Genus Cathartes comprises the North American
Vultures.

The Turkey Buzzard or Turkey Vulture, C. a^tm, Illig.,
6

122

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

of all North America except the Arctic regions, is thirty
inches long, and the wing twenty -three inches.

Fig. 88.

California Vulture, C. calif ornianus, Shaw.

The California Vulture, C. calif ornianus, Cuv., of West-
ern North America, is the largest rapacious bird in Amer-
ica, except the Condor, being from forty-five to fifty inches
long, and the wing thirty inches ; the color black, with a
white transverse band upon the wings, the head and
neck orange yellow and red.

The Black Vulture or Carrion Crow, C. atratus, Les-

RAPTORES : FALCONIDjE. 123

son, of the Southern States to Chili, is about twenty-
three inches long, and is abundant even in the cities,
where it performs the important office of scavenger.

Burrough's Vulture, C. Burrovianus, Cassin, of Mexico
and Lower California, is the smallest of the genus, be-
ing about twenty-two inches in length.

The Genus Gypiztos comprises the Lsemmergeyer of
the Alps and other high mountains of the Eastern hemi-
sphere, which is the largest bird of prey in the Old World,
being but little smaller than the Condor. It builds its
nests upon inaccessible acclivities, attacks lambs, goats,
and the chamois, and it is asserted that even infants have
been carried off by it.

FALCONID.E, OR FALCON FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds of prey which have the head completely cov-
ered with feathers, the eyes more or less sunken, and
exceedingly sharp talons and powerful muscles. They
are adapted, both by their organization and courage, for
the capture of living prey, although in these respects
they differ greatly among themselves.

The Genus Falco Falcons has the form robust and
compact ; the bill short and strongly curved from the
base to the point, near which is a distinct and generally
prominent tooth ; the nostrils circular, with a central
tubercle ; wings long and pointed ; tail long and wide ;
tarsi short and covered with circular or hexagonal scales,
and the middle toe long ; claws large, strong, curved, and
very sharp. The falcons are remarkable for exceedingly
rapid flight, and great boldness in attacking their prey.
They are the birds used in falconry, and several of the
species are extremely docile, being readily trained to pur-
sue game, and return at call.

The Duck Hawk or Peregrine Falcon, F. anatiim, Bo-
naparte, of North America east of the Rocky Mountains,
is eighteen to twenty inches long, the wings fourteen

124

VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

Fig. 89.

to fifteen inches ; the upper parts bluish-cinereous, with
transverse bands of brownish black ; under parts yellow-
ish white, with heart-shaped and circular spots of black
oh the breast and abdomen, and transverse bands of
black upon the sides, under tail coverts, and tibias ; quills
and tail brownish black. The frontal band is white, the

cheeks with a
patch of black,
bill light blue,
and the legs
and toes yel-
low. Young-
er specimens
have the upper

DartS

Duck Hawk, or Peregrine Falcon, F. anatttm, Bonap.

ish black, the under parts darker than in the adult, and
with longitudinal stripes of brownish black ; the tarsi
and toes of a bluish lead-color, frontal band obscure,
and a large black patch on the cheek. This falcon pur-
sues its prey with almost inconceivable velocity through
all its turnings and windings, and when within a few
feet of the quarry protrudes its powerful legs and talons
to their full extent, almost closes its wings for a mo-
ment, and the next instant grasps the prize, and bears
it away to a secluded place, or, if too heavy, forces it
obliquely to the ground, and devours it on the spot. The
Duck Hawk not only pursues ducks and other birds
upon the wing, but, sweeping over the water, it catches
up ducks and teal and other swimming-birds. One has
been known to come, at the report of a gun, and bear
away a teal not thirty paces from the hunter who had
shot it.

The Common Peregrine Falcon, F. percgrimts, Gm., of
Europe, closely resembles the preceding. It was formerly
much used in falconry.

RAPTORES: FALCONIDjE. 125

The Black-headed Falcon, F. nigriccps, Cass., of West-
ern North and South America, is closely related to the
two preceding, but is smaller.

The Pigeon Hawk, F. columbarius, Linn., of the warm
and temperate parts of America, is twelve to fourteen
inches long, and the wing eight to nine inches ; the
male ten to eleven inches, and the wing seven and a
half to eight inches. In the adult the upper parts are
bluish-slate, every feather with a longitudinal black line ;
forehead and throat white; and the other under parts
pale yellowish or reddish white, every feather with a lon-
gitudinal line of brownish black. The bill is blue, cere
and legs yellow, quills black, tipped with ashy white, tail
light bluish-ashy tipped with white, and with a broad sub-
terminal black band, and several other narrower trans-
verse bands of the same color. This spirited little falcon
preys upon pigeons, teal, and most of the smaller birds.
In the latter part of summer and early autumn it is
a constant attendant upon the flocks of birds that are
assembling for, or making, their southward migrations,
and fattens upon those it chooses to select. It generally
flies low, skimming over fields, and along the hedges
and skirts of woodlands, searching for its favorite prey.

The Orange-breasted Hawk, F. aurantius, Gm., of Texas
and South America, is somewhat smaller than the pigeon
hawk.

F. femoralis, Temm., of New Mexico and South Amer-
ica, is somewhat larger than the pigeon hawk.

The Prairie Falcon, F. polyagrns, Cass., of Western
North America, is eighteen to twenty inches long, and
the wing thirteen to fourteen inches ; the plumage above
brown ; a narrow frontal band, a line over the eye, and
under parts, white ; the breast and abdomen with longi-
tudinal stripes and spots of brown, which color also forms
a large spot on the flank.

126 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Gerfalcon, F. candicans, Gm., of Northern North
America and Greenland, is about twenty-four inches long,
and the wing sixteen inches, the plumage white, the up-
per parts with irregular confluent bands and large sub-
terminal sagittate or hastate spots of ashy-brown, and the
under parts with a few narrow stripes of brown. Younger
specimens have the brown predominating, of a lighter
shade than in the adult, and barred and spotted with
white, the under parts whitish, with longitudinal stripes
of brown.

The Gerfalcon or Iceland Falcon, F, icclandicus, Sabine,
of Northern North America and Greenland, can only be
distinguished from the preceding by the markings on the
upper surface of the body, the brown, transverse bands
in the present species being regular and very distinct.

The Gerfalcon of Iceland and the North of Europe is
undoubtedly the same species as the Iceland falcon. The
Gerfalcons are the most highly esteemed by falconers.

F . The Sparrow Hawk, F. sparverius,

Linn., of the entire continent of
America, is eleven to twelve inches
long, and the wing seven to seven
and a half inches ; the top of the
head, neck behind, back, rump, and
tail, light rufous or cinnamon color ;
the under parts generally of a paler
shade of the same rufous as the back,
and always with circular or oblong
spots of black. The frontal band, and
Linn. space including the eyes and throat,
are white ; a spot on the neck behind, two on each side
of the neck, and a line running downwards from before
the eye, black. The Sparrow Hawk feeds upon small
birds, mice, and other small animals, and never attacks
poultry. It becomes greatly attached to a particular

RAPTORES: FALCONID.E. I2/

locality, and may be seen day after day on the same
tree, stump, or stake, watching for prey.

The Genus Astur Goshawk and allies has the up-
per mandible lobed, but not toothed, the form somewhat
long, wings rather short, tail broad and long, tarsi long
and covered in front with wide transverse scales. Twelve
species are known which belong to this genus, only one
of which is found in North America.

The Goshawk, A. atricapillus, Bonap., of North Amer-
ica, is twenty-two to twenty-four inches long, and the wing
about fourteen inches ; the male about twenty inches,
and the wing twelve and a half inches. The head above,
neck behind, and a stripe from behind the eye, black ;
the other upper parts dark ashy-bluish. There is a con-
spicuous white stripe over the eye, and the entire un-
der parts are mottled with white and light ashy-brown.
Young specimens have the upper parts dark-brown, and
the under parts white, every feather with a longitudinal
stripe terminating in an ovate spot of brown. The Gos-
hawk spends much of the time upon the wing. It pur-
sues birds with great swiftness, and sometimes with
meteor-like velocity it glides into the forest and emerges
with a hare or squirrel which its quick eye had singled
out. The nest is large, and placed on a tree near its
trunk ; and the eggs are bluish-white, sparingly spotted
with light reddish-brown.

The Genus Accipiter has a more slender form than the
preceding, but is otherwise similar, having also the lobed
upper mandible. About twenty species are known, three
of which belong to North America.

Cooper's Hawk, A. Coopcrii, Bonap., of all temperate
North America, is eighteen to twenty inches long, the
wing ten to eleven inches ; the male sixteen to eigh-
teen inches long, and the wing nine and a half to ten
inches. The upper parts are dark ashy-brown, the head

128 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

above brownish-black, and an obscure rufous collar on
the neck behind. The throat and under tail coverts are
white, and the other under parts transversely barred with
light rufous and white. The tail is dark cinereous tipped
with white, and crossed by four wide bands of brownish-
black. This hawk attacks poultry, grouse, hares, and
squirrels.

The Blue-backed Hawk, A. mexicanus, Sw., of Western
North America, is intermediate between the preceding
and the following species.

The Sharp-shinned Hawk, A. fuscus, Bonap., of the
whole of North America, is twelve to fourteen inches long,
the wing seven and a half to eight inches ; the male ten
to eleven inches, and the wing six inches to six and a
half. The upper parts brownish-black tinged with ashy ;
throat and under tail coverts white, the former with lines
of black on the shafts of the feathers ; the other under
parts light rufous, deepest on the tibiae, and with trans-
verse bands of white ; the tail ashy-brown tipped with
white, and the secondaries and tertiaries with large par-
tially concealed spots of white. Younger specimens are
dull umber-brown above, tinged with ashy ; under parts
white, with stripes and spots of reddish-brown. The
slender legs and toes of this species will generally be
sufficient to distinguish it. Its flight is swift, but irregu-
lar and vacillating.

The Genus Buteo Buzzards has the bill short and
wide at the base, the edges of the upper mandible lobed,
the wings long and wide, the fourth and fifth quills usu-
ally longest, the tarsi moderate, robust and with trans-
verse scales before and behind, and with hexagonal scales
on the sides. About thirty species are known.

Swainson's Buzzard, B. Swainsoni, Bonap., of Northern
and Western North America, is about twenty inches in
length.

RAPTORES : FALCONID.E. 1 29

Baird's Buzzard, B. Bairdii, Hoy, of Northern and
Western North America, is eighteen to twenty inches
long, and wing fifteen inches.

The Red-tailed Black Hawk, B. calurus, Cass., of West-
ern North America, is twenty-one inches long, and the
wing sixteen and a half inches.

The Brown Hawk, Buteo insignatus, Cass., of Western
North America, is nineteen and a half inches long, and
the wing sixteen inches ; the male seventeen inches, and
the wing fourteen and a half inches.

Harlan's Buzzard, B.Harlani, Bonap., of Western North
America, is twenty-one inches long, and the wings six-
teen inches.

The Red-tailed Hawk,j5. borcalis,ViQ\\\., of North Amer-
ica east of the Rocky Mountains and southward to the
West Indies, is twenty-two to twenty-four inches long,
the wing fifteen to sixteen inches in length ; the male
nineteen to twenty-one inches long, and the wing four-
teen inches. The upper parts are dark umber-brown,
the tail bright rufous tipped with white, and with a sub-
terminal band of black ; the under parts pale yellowish-
white, with lines and spots of reddish-brown ; and the
under surface of the tail silvery white. This hawk is
powerful ; its flight is firm and protracted, and generally
accompanied with a mournful cry. When it espies an
intended victim, it alights upon a tree and watches for a
short time, and then, with wings partly closed, descends
swiftly upon the prey. When scanning a region, it some-
times sweeps around in broad circles, and thus rises to
such a height as to be scarcely visible. Sometimes this
hawk takes its stand upon a tall tree, and watches silently
for hours for a good opportunity, which it seldom fails to
improve. Poultry, hares, and squirrels fall an easy prey.
This hawk builds its nest, which is large and flat, in
the forked branches of one of the largest trees of the

130 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

forest, and lays four or five eggs of a dull white color,
with brown and black blotches.

The Western Red-tailed Hawk, B. montanus, Nutt, of
Western North America, is closely related to B. borcalis,
but appears to be somewhat larger.

The Red-shouldered Hawk, B. lineatus, Jardine, of
Eastern and Northern North America, is twenty-one to
twenty-three inches long, the wing fourteen inches ; the
male eighteen to twenty inches long, and the wing twelve
inches. This is one of the most common hawks of the
region it inhabits, and is readily distinguished by its wing
coverts, which, from the flexure to the body, are bright
rufous. The upper parts are brown, the under parts
paler orange-rufous, quills brownish-black with white
spots on their outer webs, and with bars of a lighter
shade of brown, and of white on their inner webs. The
tail is brownish-black, with about five transverse bands
of white, and tipped with white. This hawk prefers the
forest, and generally hunts in pairs. During the spring,
especially, its discordant notes may be heard daily. Its
nest is made in the top of a large tree ; eggs four to five,
granulated, pale blue, faintly blotched with brownish-red
at the smaller end.

The Red-bellied Hawk, B. clegans, Cass., of Western
North America, is closely related to B. lineatus.

The Broad-winged Hawk, B. pcnnsylvanicus, Bonap.,
of Eastern North America, is seventeen to eighteen inches
long, the wing eleven inches ; the male sixteen inches,
and the wing ten. The upper parts are umber-brown,
throat white with lines of brown, the breast with a wide
band of spots and bands of ferruginous tinged with ashy,
and the other under parts white with numerous sagittate
spots of reddish. The quills are brownish-black, widely
bordered with white on their inner webs, and the tail
dark brown, narrowly tipped with white, and with one

RAPTORES : FALCONID.E. I 3 I

wide band of white and several narrower bands near the
base.

The California Hawk, B. Cooperi, Cass., of California,
is about the size of B. borealis, and may be distinguished
from all others of this genus in North America by its
brighter colors.

The Genus Arckibuteo is distinguished by tarsi densely
feathered to the toes, but more or less naked behind, and
covered with scales ; wings long and wide, tail rather
short and wide, and toes short.

The Rough-legged Hawk, A. lagopus, Gray, of tem-
perate North America and Europe, is twenty-one to
twenty-three inches long, the wing sixteen to seventeen
inches ; the male nineteen inches, and the wing fifteen
to sixteen inches. The plumage is irregularly variegated
with dark or light brown and white or whitish. It is one
of the most widely diffused of all birds ; rather sluggish
in its habits, flies low, and frequents low grounds, where
it sits for hours watching for birds and small quadrupeds.

The Black Hawk, A. sancti-joJiannis, Gray, of Eastern
and Northern North America, is twenty-two to twenty-
four inches long, the wing seventeen to seventeen and a
half inches ; the male twenty to twenty-two inches, the
wing sixteen to sixteen and a half inches. The plumage
is glossy black, with a brownish tinge. The tail has one
transverse band of white, and is irregularly marked to-
wards the base with the same color. Some specimens
are dark chocolate-brown, with the head striped with yel-
lowish-white and reddish-yellow ; and the tail with several
irregular transverse bands of white.

The California Squirrel Hawk, A. fcrmgincus, Gray,
of Western North America, is somewhat larger than
either of the two preceding ; the upper parts dark brown
and light rufous ; the under parts of the body white,
with narrow longitudinal lines and spots on the breast

132 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

of reddish-brown, and narrow irregular transverse lines
of the same color, and of black, on the abdomen ; the
tibiae and tarsi bright ferruginous, with transverse lines
of black.

The Genus Asturina comprises A. nitida, Bonap., of
Northern Mexico and South America.

The Genus Nauclerus is characterized by very long
and pointed wings, and very long and forked tail, and by
short bill, tarsi, and toes. Three species are known, two
American and one African.

The Swallow-tailed Hawk, N.furcatus, Vigors, of the
Eastern United States to the Mississippi and northward
to Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, is twenty-three to twenty-
five inches long, the wing sixteen to seventeen and a
half inches; the head and neck and entire under parts
white ; the back, wings, and tail black, with a metallic
lustre. The flight of this hawk is peculiarly graceful, and
its motions very rapid. It glides along with gentle flap-
pings, rises in circles, describes deep curves, and performs
all kinds of evolutions in a manner that never fails to
interest the beholder. It never attacks birds, but preys
upon insects and reptiles, and always devours its prey
while on the wing.

The Genus Elanus has the wings long and pointed,
tail moderate and emarginate, but not forked.

The White-tailed Hawk, E. Icuctims, Bonap., of the
Southern and Western States and of South America, is
fifteen to seventeen inches long ; the head and tail and
entire under parts white ; the upper parts light cinereous,
lesser wing coverts glossy black, inferior wing coverts
white with a smaller patch of black.

The Genus Ictinia is characterized by a short and
compact body, wings long and pointed, tail short and
emarginated, and the tip of the bill emarginated.

The Mississippi Kite, /. mississippiensis, Gray, of the

RAPTORES : FALCONIDjE. 133

Southern States, is about fifteen inches long, the upper
parts dark lead-color, the head and under parts dark
cinereous, the quills and tail brownish black.

The Genus Rostrhamns comprises the Black Kite, R.
sociabilis, D'Orb., of Florida and southward, which is six-
teen inches long, black except the tail at the base and
under tail coverts, which are white ; bill very long and
slender.

The Genus Circus is characterized by a large head,
short compressed bill, face partially encircled by a ring
or ruff of projecting feathers, tarsi long and slender, and
the claws rather slender and weak. This genus com-
prises fifteen species, only one of which is found in North
'America.

The Marsh Hawk or Harrier, C. hudsonius, Vieill., of
North America and Cuba, is nineteen to twenty-one
inches long, the wing fifteen and a half inches ; the male
sixteen to eighteen inches long, and the wing fourteen
and a half inches. The upper parts and breast are pale
bluish-cinereous, the upper tail coverts and under parts
white, the latter with small cordate or hastate spots of
light ferruginous.

About seventy species of eagles belong to the Fal-
conidae.

The Genus Aquila is characterized by a large and
strong form, large, strong compressed bill, long and
pointed wings, short and very strong tarsi feathered to
the toes, and sharp, strong, and curved claws.

The Golden Eagle or Ring-tailed Eagle, A. canadcnsis,
Cass., of all North America, is thirty-three to forty inches
long, the wing twenty-five inches ; the male thirty to
thirty-five inches, the wing twenty to twenty-three inches.
The head and neck behind light brownish-fulvous, tail
at base white, terminal portion glossy black, all other
parts rich purplish-brown, frequently nearly black on

134 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

the under parts of the body. Younger specimens are
lighter in plumage. The Golden Eagle has great power
of flight, but not the speed of many of the falcons and
hawks, and does not so readily pursue and capture birds
upon the wing ; but its keen sight enables it to spy an
object of prey at a great distance, and with meteor-like
swiftness and unerring aim it falls upon its victim. At
times it soars to great heights, moving slowly and majes-
tically in broad circles. The nest of the Golden Eagle
is placed upon a shelf of a ragged and generally inacces-
sible precipice. It is flat and very large, and consists of
dry sticks. The eggs are two in number, three and a
half inches long, and two and a half inches through,
and dull white with undefined patches of brown. The*
Golden Eagle preys upon fawns, hares, wild turkeys, and
other large birds. It does not attain its full beauty of
plumage till the fourth year. The so-called Ring-tailed
Eagle is the present species before it has reached ma-
turity. The European Golden Eagle is so nearly like
the American one, that there is a question whether it is
not the same species.

The Genus Halictus is characterized by large size,
strong and very robust form, slightly lobed upper man-
dible, tarsi short and naked, or only feathered for a short
distance below the joint of the tibia and tarsus, and
the toes covered with scales. Ten or twelve species are
known, all of which subsist mainly upon fishes.

The Northern Sea-Eagle, H. pelagicus, Sieb., of the
northern parts of both continents, is the largest of all
the eagles. The female is forty-five inches long, and the
wing twenty-six inches. The frontal space, greater wing
coverts, abdomen, and tail are white ; all other parts of
the plumage, dark brown ; bill and legs, yellow.

The Washington Eagle, H, Washingtonii, Jard., of
North America, is forty-three inches in length, the wing

RAPTORES: FALCONID.E. 135

thirty-two inches, and the entire plumage dark brown
mixed with fulvous.

The Gray Sea-Eagle, H. albicilla, Cuv., of Greenland
and Europe, is thirty-five to forty inches long, the tail
white, head and neck yellowish brown, and all the other
plumage dark umber-brown. It is very common on the
coast of Europe, and builds its nest upon high cliffs.

The Bald Eagle or White-headed Eagle, H. huco-
ccphahts, Savig., of all temperate North America, Green-
land, Iceland, and accidental in Europe, is thirty-five to
forty inches long, the wing twenty-three to twenty-five
inches ; the male thirty to thirty-four inches, the wing
twenty to twenty-two inches. The head, and the tail
and its coverts, white ; the remaining plumage brownish
black ; bill, feet, and irides yellow. Younger individuals
have the entire plumage dark brown, bill brownish black,
and irides brown. The term " bald " is unfortunate in its
application to this eagle, for the white head is as densely
feathered as any other part. When moving from one
region to another, it flies by continued easy flappings.
When searching for prey, it sails with wings extended,
and occasionally allowing its legs to hang at their full
length. It has the ability of ascending in circular sweeps
without any apparent motion of the wings or of the tail,
and it often rises in this manner until it disappears from
view. When at an immense height, and as if observing
an object on the ground, it sometimes closes its wings,
and glides towards the earth with such velocity that the
eye can scarcely follow it, causing a loud rustling sound
like a violent gust of wind among the branches of the
forest. The White-headed Eagle prefers the lowlands
of the sea-shores and lakes, and the borders of large
rivers, and is less frequently seen in mountainous re-
gions. The nest, five or six feet in diameter, is placed
on a tall tree, and is composed of sticks from three to

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

bo

bfl
'

?s

s

u

I

T3

five feet in length, together with turf, rank weeds, and
lichens, and is occupied by the same pair *year after
year. The eggs are two to four, dull white, and equally
rounded at both ends. The attachment of the parents
to the young while unable to fly is very great, and for a
man to ascend to the nest at such times is very danger-
ous ; but when the young are able to fly, the old ones
drive them from the nest, to which, however, they return
at night for several weeks. This eagle preys upon fish,

RAPTORES: FALCONID^:. 137

large birds, and various quadrupeds. During spring and
summer, instead of fishing for itself, it watches the fish-
hawk, and, as soon as the latter rises from the water
with a fish, it rushes forth in pursuit, and the indus-
trious bird is obliged to drop its well-earned prey in
order to save its own life, when, with the quickness of
thought, the eagle sweeps down and seizes the fish while
it is yet falling, and bears it away. This eagle enjoys
the honor of standing as our national emblem.

The Genus Pandion is characterized by a rather heavy
form, very long wings, tarsi thick and strong and covered
with small circular scales, claws large, curved, and very
rough beneath. Three or four species are known.

The American Fish-Hawk or Osprev, P. carolineiisis,
Bonap., of all temperate North America, is twenty-five
inches long ; the wing twenty-one inches ; the head and
entire under parts white ; a stripe through the eye, the
top of the head, and upper parts of the body, wings, and
tail, deep umber-brown ; the bill and claws bluish black ;
the tarsi and toes greenish yellow. The Osprey preys
wholly or mainly upon fish, and never attacks other birds.
When searching for food, it flies with easy flappings at
moderate heights, and when it spies a fish checks its
course, seems to poise itself for a moment, and then
plunges headlong and with great rapidity into the water
to secure its prey. Rising, it mounts into the air, shakes
the water from its plumage, squeezes the fish in its tal-
ons, and flies to feed its young, or to a tree to satisfy
its own hunger. The Osprey makes its nest on a tall
tree, generally in the vicinity of water. It is four feet
across, and composed of sticks, weeds, and grasses. The
eggs are three or four, yellowish-white, and densely cov-
ered with large irregular spots of reddish-brown. So mild
is the disposition of this bird, that it suffers others to
build their nests among the outer sticks of its own nest.

138 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Genus Polyborus is characterized by rather long
bill, long, pointed wings, long and rather slender tarsi,
and rather weak claws.

The Mexican Eagle or Caracara Eagle, P. tJiarus, Cass.,
of Southern North America and of South America, is
sluggish in its habits, and walks on the ground with fa-
cility.

The Genus Craxirex has the edges of the upper man-
dible festooned.

Harris's Buzzard, C. unicinctus, Cass., of Southern North
America and of South America, is twenty-two to twenty-
four inches long, the body dark brown, shoulders, wing
coverts, and tibiae reddish-chestnut, and the tail white at
the base and tippjed with white.

STRIGID/E, OR OWL FAMILY. This Family comprises
all the nocturnal birds of prey. They are characterized
by a short heavy form, large head, large eyes directed for-
ward, curved bill nearly concealed by bristle-like feathers,
large ear-cavities, and face encircled by a disk of short
rigid feathers, which, with the large eyes, give to these
birds an expression very much like that of a cat. This
family is represented in all parts of the world. About
one hundred and fifty species are known, forty of which
belong to America.

The Genus Strix is characterized by rather small eyes,
and conspicuous facial disc. It contains twelve species.

The Barn Owl, .S. pratincola, Bonap., of all temperate
North America, sixteen inches in length and the wing
thirteen, is our only representative of this genus. It is
found near the borders of the forest, and frequently re-
sorts to old buildings in its search for rats and mice.

The Genus Bubo Great Horned or Cat Owls is
characterized by large size, robust and powerful form,
conspicuous ear-tufts, and very large eyes. There are
about fifteen species of this genus.

RAPTORES I STRIGIDJE.

139

The Great Horned
Owl, B. virginiamiSy
Bonap., of all North
America, is twenty-
one to twenty -five
inches long, the wing
fourteen and a half
to sixteen ; the male
eighteen to twenty-
one inches, the wing
fourteen to fifteen
inches. Its large size
and conspicuous ear-
tufts are sufficient to
distinguish it from all
our other owls. Its
plumage is exceed-
ingly various. This
owl makes great hav-
oc among poultry,
wild turkeys, and grouse. The nest is usually on a large
branch, and not far from the trunk of the tree ; the eggs
three to six, almost globular, and white. There are sev-
eral varieties of this species.

The Genus Scops Mottled or Screech Owls is char-
acterized by small size, conspicuous ear-tufts, imperfect
facial disk, short bill nearly covered, toes long and gen-
erally partly covered with hair-like feathers.

The Mottled Owl or Screech Owl, S. asio, Bonap., of all
temperate North America, is nine and a half to ten inches
long, the wing seven inches, and the male nearly of the
same size. The upper parts are pale ashy-brown with
longitudinal lines of brownish black, and irregularly mot-
tled with the same and with cinereous ; the under parts
ashy white, with longitudinal stripes of brownish black,

Great Horned Owl, B. virginianus, Bonap.

140 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

and with transverse lines of the same color. Younger
individuals have the upper parts pale brownish-red with
longitudinal lines of brownish black, and the tail rufous
with bands of brown. This owl preys upon mice, small
birds, and beetles. Its notes are uttered in a tremulous,
doleful manner, and may be heard several hundred yards.
It often comes to the farm-houses, and alights upon the
roof. The nest is in a hollow tree ; the eggs are four or
five, white, and nearly globular.

The Western Mottled Owl, 5. McCallii, Cass., of West-
ern North America, is closely related to the preceding
one, but is smaller.

The Genus Otus Long-eared Owls is characterized
by a longer and more slender form than the preceding
genera, moderate-sized head,, ear-tufts long and erectile,
facial disk well marked, and eyes small and surrounded
by radiating feathers. Ten or twelve species are known,
only one of which belongs to North America.

The Long-eared Owl, O. Wilsonianus, Lesson, of tem-
perate North America, is fifteen inches long, the wing
eleven, and readily distinguished by its long ear-tufts.
It lingers about mountain streams, perching on a low
tree or shrub. When disturbed, it does not fly, but
bounds into the thicket, and makes off by long leaps.
Its cry is prolonged and plaintive, consisting of two or
three notes repeated at intervals. It rears its young in
nests which it finds, seldom making one for itself.

The Genus BracJiyotus Short-eared Owls is char-
acterized by short and inconspicuous ear-tufts.

The Short-eared Owl, B. Cassinii, Brewer, of temper-
ate North America and Greenland, is fifteen inches long,
and the wing twelve inches.

The Genus Syrnium Gray Owls is characterized
by large size, large head, absence of ear-tufts, rather
small eyes, tail usually rounded at the end, and the preva-
lent colors of the plumage gray and cinereous.

RAPTORES: STRIGID^E.

The Great Gray Owl, 5. cincrctim, Aud., of Northern
North America, is the largest of our owls, being twenty-
five to thirty inches long, and the wing eighteen: In win-
ter it wanders over a large part of the United States.

The Barred Owl, 5. nebulosum, Gray, of Eastern North
America, is about twenty inches long, and the wing
thirteen to fourteen inches ; the upper parts light ashy-
brown, with transverse narrow bands of white ; the breast
with transverse bands of brown and white ; the abdo-
men ashy white, with longitudinal stripes of brown. It
destroys poultry, hares, and birds, and its cry is very loud
and discordant. It lays four to six globular white eggs
in a hollow tree.

The Genus Nyctale comprises small owls with small
eyes, and ear-tufts which are only observable when
erected. Four species belong to America.

The Sparrow Owl, N. RicJiardsonii, Bonap., of North-
ern North America, is about ten and a half inches long,
and the wing seven and a half inches ; the upper parts
pale reddish-brown tinged with olive, with partially con-
cealed spots of white ; the under parts ashy white, with
longitudinal stripes of reddish brown ; the quills brown,
with small spots of white on their outer edge, and large
spots of white on their webs ; the tail brown, every feather
with about ten pairs of white spots.

Kirtland's Owl, N. albifrons, Cass., of Northern North
America, is about eight inches long ; the head, upper
part of the breast, and entire upper parts, chocolate-
brown ; the forehead, throat, and a line running down-
wards from the base of the under mandible, white ; the
other under parts of the body reddish ochre-yellow.

The Acadian or Saw-whet Owl, A 7 ", acadica, Bonap., of
temperate North America, is seven and a half to eight
inches long ; the upper parts brown tinged with olive ;
the under parts ashy white, with longitudinal stripes of

142

VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

Fig. 93.

pale reddish-brown. Its notes bear a strong resemblance
to the noise made in filing the teeth of a large saw.

The Genus Athene Burrowing Owls is character-
ized by small size, rather long legs thinly covered with
short feathers, and nearly or quite naked toes.

The Burrowing Owl, A. hypugaa, Bonap., is about nine
inches long, and is found from the Mississippi to the
Rocky Mountains. It lives in the holes of the Prairie
Dog.

The Burrowing Owl, A. cttnicularia, Bonap., is about
ten and a half inches long, and is found west of the
Rocky Mountains and in South America.
The Genus Glaucidium, Pygmy Owls.
The Pygmy Owl, G. gnoma, Cass., of Oregon and Cali-
fornia, is seven inches long, and the wing three inches and
three fourths, being the smallest owl in North America.

The Genus Nyc-
tea comprises the
Snowy or White
Owl, Nyctea nivea,
Gray, of the north-
ern regions of both
continents, which
is twenty-four to
twenty-seven inch-
es long, the wing
sixteen to seven-
teen inches, and
the entire plumage
white, frequently
with spots or irreg-
ular bars of dark
brown. In winter
it wanders over a

Snowy Owl, Nyctea nivea, Gray. g reat P art f N rth

SCANSORES: PSITTACID^E. 143

America and Europe. Unlike those before described, it
hunts in the daytime as well as in twilight. It preys
upon quadrupeds, birds, and fishes. It captures ducks
and other birds upon the wing, striking them much after
the manner of falcons.

The Genus Sumia comprises the Hawk Owl or Day
Owl, S. nlula, Bonap., of the northern regions of both
continents, which is sixteen to seventeen inches long,
the wing nine inches, the upper parts brown, the throat
white, a large brown spot on each side of the breast, and
the other under parts with transverse stripes of pale
ashy-brown. It has the general appearance and habits
of both an owl and a falcon, and is mainly a diurnal bird.

SUB-SECTION II.

THE ORDER OF SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS.

THE Order of Scansores comprises all birds which
have their toes in pairs, two in front and two behind,
the outer anterior one being usually directed backwards,
an arrangement which especially facilitates climbing.
This order comprises five families, Psittacidae or Parrot
Family, Ramphastidae or Toucan Family, Trogonidae or
Trogon Family, Cuculidas or Cuckoo Family, and Picidae
or Woodpecker Family.

PSITTACID,E, OR PARROT FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds which have a stout, thick, rounded bill, hooked
at the tip, and the base covered with a soft skin or cere,
as in the hawks. The tongue is thick and fleshy, the
inferior larynx complicated and furnished with three
muscles on each side, and their jaws are set in motion
by a greater number of muscles than is found in other
birds. Most of them are adorned with varied and gor-
geous plumage, which, together with the facility with
which many of them may be trained to imitate the

144

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

human voice, has ever made them objects of attention.
They are numerous, and confined to the tropical and sub-
tropical regions of both hemispheres, mainly to the for-
mer, and each region has its peculiar species. They are
known as Parrots, Macaws, Cockatoos, Paroquets, and are
often tamed and kept as pets.

The Genus Conurus is characterized by feathered
cheeks, and a long, conical pointed tail.

The Carolina Parrot, C. carolinensis, Kuhl., of the South-
ern and Southwestern States, is the only representative
of its genus in the United States. It is thirteen inches
long, the wing about eight inches, the head and neck
gamboge-yellow, forehead and sides of the head brick-
red, body and tail green, edge of wing yellow, and bill
white. It is generally found in flocks.

Fig. 94.

Carolina Parrot, C. carolinensis, Kuhl.

RAMPHASTID^E, OR TOUCAN FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds which are distinguished from all others

SCANSORES: TROGONID^E. 145

by their enormous bill, which is almost as thick and long
as their body, and which is light and cellular internally,
arcuated near the end, and irregularly indented along its
edges. Their tongue is long, and fringed with barbs on
both sides. They inhabit the warm regions of South
America. Contrary to what might be supposed, they
are graceful in their movements, and in obtaining their
food show a use for their long bills. They dip them
down into the deep and hanging nests of other birds,
and extract the eggs and young for food. They also
feed upon fish, insects, and fruit. They throw their food
into the air, and catch it as it descends, and thus swal-
low it with greater facility. About twenty species are
known.

TROGONIDJE, OR TROGON FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with a broad short bill, the tip hooked and
dentate, and the base surrounded by long stiff bristles,
the wings short and rounded, tail elongated, legs small,
tarsus short and hidden in the plumage. They live upon
insects, build their nests in hollow trees, and are but little
upon the wing. They are found in both continents.

The Genus Trogon Trogons has the bill broad,
both mandibles serrated, and the anterior toes united be-
yond the first joint.

The Mexican Trogon, T. mexicanus, Sw., is the only
representative of its family in North America. It is ten
and three fourths inches long, the wing five and a quar-
ter inches ; the color golden green above, and on the
neck all round ; under parts carmine ; forehead, chin,
and side of the head black.

CUCULID.E, OR CUCKOO FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with a compressed, gently curved, and gen-
erally lengthened bill, lengthened tarsi, rather short toes,
long and soft tail, with eight to twelve feathers.

The Genus Crotophaga has the bill shorter than the
7 J

146 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

head, high and much compressed ; tail feathers eight, and
the plumage black.

The Black Parrot, C. rugirostris, Sw., of Florida to
Brazil, is about fifteen inches long, and the wing six
inches ; and the bill with faint transverse wrinkles on
the gently decurved culmen.

The Ani, C. ani, Linn., of the Atlantic coast of South-
eastern North America and southward, is twelve inches
long, the wing over six inches, the bill smooth, and the
culmen abruptly decurved.

The Genus Gcococcyx has the bill longer than the head,
loral feathers stiff and bristly, and the tail feathers ten.
Birds of this genus live on the ground.

The Paisano, Road Runner, or Chaparral Cock, G. cali-
fornianus, Baird, of Texas to California, the only repre-
sentative in the United States, is twenty to twenty-three
inches long, and the wing six inches ; all the feathers of
the upper parts and wings of a dull metallic olivaceous-
green, broadly edged with white near the end ; under
parts whitish. The legs are very long, and it can run
faster than a fleet horse. It frequents the highways.

The Genus Coccygus Cuckoos comprises birds which
have the bill shorter than the head, decurved, slender, and
attenuated towards the end ; loral feathers soft, tarsi
shorter than the toes, and the tail feathers ten.

The Yellow-billed Cuckoo, C. americamts, Bonap., of
the United States east of the Missouri plains, is twelve
inches long, the wing about six inches ; the upper parts
metallic greenish-olive, under parts white. The upper
mandible and tip of the lower are black ; the rest of the
lower mandible and edges of the upper, yellow. The
flight of this bird is silent, rapid, and horizontal. It is
shy, seeking the thickest foliage, where it sits by the hour
uttering its unpleasant notes, which may be represented
by cow cow eight or ten times repeated. It feeds on in-

SCANSORES : CUCULID.E.

147

sects, and upon Fig. 9S .

eggs, which it

steals from the

nests of other

birds. It builds

its nest of dry

sticks and grass,

on a horizontal

branch. The

eggs are four

or five, bright

green.

The Black- Yellow-tilled Cuckoo, C. americanns^ Bonap.

billed Cuckoo, C. erythrophtlialmus, Bonap., of the same
region, and of about the same size and general appear-
ance and habits as the preceding one, may at once be
distinguished by its entirely black bill, and the naked
red skin around the eye.

The Mangrove Cuckoo, C. minor, Cab., of Florida, is
readily distinguished from both the preceding by its ful-
vous under parts and dark ear coverts.

PICID^E, OR WOODPECKER FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds characterized by a straight, rigid, and sharp
bill, which is specially adapted to cutting into bark or
wood ; and by a long, acute tongue, armed towards the
tip with barbs, and capable of great extension. They
have stout feet, clothed before with broad plates, long
wings, ten primaries, and twelve tail feathers, the exterior
being small and concealed. Woodpeckers feed upon the
larvae of insects, which they secure by introducing their
extensible tongue under the bark of trees, or into crevices,
or into holes which they themselves have made, and then
transfixing the larvae with the barbed point ; or the larvae
adhere to the viscid glue with which the tongue is cov-
ered. They are very common in both hemispheres, and
about twenty-five species are found in North America.

148 VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

The Genus CampepJiilus comprises Woodpeckers which
have the bill considerably longer than the head, feet large,
tail long and cuneate, wings long and pointed, the color
black with white patches, and the head with a pointed
crest.

The Ivory-billed Woodpecker, C. principalis, Gray, of
the Southern States, is twenty-one inches long, the wing
ten inches, the bill ivory-white, the body glossy-black, a
stripe on each side of the neck and markings upon the
wings white, and the crest scarlet. The female is with-
out red upon the head, and with two spots of white on
the end of the outer tail feather. This bird moves from
the top of one tree to that of another by a single sweep,
forming a most elegant curve. Its notes are clear and
loud, yet plaintive. It makes its nest in the trunk of
a live tree, in a hole which the male and female exca-
vate by their mutual labor.

The Imperial Woodpecker, C. impcrialis, of Mexico and
Central America, is very similar to the preceding one, but
larger.

The Genus Picus comprises small Woodpeckers which
have the bill about equal in length to the head, or a little
longer, and the lateral ridges conspicuous; the colors
black and white. The four first mentioned below have
the middle of the back longitudinally streaked with white,
the under, parts white, and a narrow red nuchal band ;
and the first two have the outer tail feathers pure white.

The Hairy Woodpecker or Sapsucker, P. villostts, Linn.,
of North America, is eight to eleven inches long, and, in
addition to the above characteristics, has the wing cov-
erts and innermost secondaries conspicuously spotted
with white.

Harris's Woodpecker, P. Harrisii, Aud., from the east-
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, is nine
and a half inches long, and, in addition to the above

SCANSORES : PICIDJE. 149

characteristics, has the wing coverts uniform black, with-
out spots.

The next two have the outer tail feathers white, with
black transverse bands.

The Downy Woodpecker, P. pubcsceiis, Linn., of East-
ern North America, is six and a quarter inches long, and
is a miniature of the Hairy Woodpecker.

Gairdner's Woodpecker, P. Gairdneri, Aud., from the
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, is
six and three fourths inches long, with wing coverts and
innermost secondaries nearly uniform black.

The two following have the middle of the back banded
transversely with white and black, the under parts white
with black spots upon the sides.

Nuttall's Woodpecker, P. Nuttalli, Gambel, of Cali-
fornia, is about seven inches long, and, in addition to
characteristics mentioned above, has the entire crown
black, nape red, both spotted with white, and the feathers
at the base of the bill white.

The Texas Sapsucker, P. scalaris, Wagler, of the Rocky
Mountains, is six and a quarter inches long ; crown and
nape red, spotted with white.

The Red-cockaded Woodpecker, P. borcalis, Vieill., of
the Southern States, is seven and a quarter inches long,
the wing four and a half inches ; the upper parts, with
top and sides of the head, black ; the back, rump, and
scapulars transversely banded with white ; a silky patch
on the side of the head, and the under parts generally,
white.

The White-headed Woodpecker, P. albolarvatus , Baird,
of Oregon and California, is about nine inches long, bluish-
black, the head and a patch at the base of the primaries
white.

The Genus Picoides comprises Woodpeckers with only
three toes to each foot. The color generally is black

150 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

above and white beneath ; the crown with a- square
yellow patch, a white stripe behind the eye, and another
beneath it ; the quills spotted with white ; and the sides
banded transversely with black.

The Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker, P. arcticus,
Gray, of Northern North America, is nine and a half
inches long, the wing five inches, and is distinguished by
its black back.

The Banded Three-toed Woodpecker, P. hirsutus, Gray,
of the Arctic regions of North America, is about nine
inches long, the wing four and three fourths inches, and
the back transversely banded with white.

The Striped Three-toed Woodpecker, P. dorsalis, Baird,
of the Rocky Mountains, is nine inches long, the wing
five inches, and the back streaked longitudinally with
white.

The Genus Spliyrapicus comprises Woodpeckers which
have the lateral ridge of the bill very prominent, but ter-
minating at the middle of the commissure ; the outer
pair of toes longest, inner posterior one very short, wings
long and pointed, fourth quill longest, the tail feathers
very broad, abruptly acuminate, and with a long point.
The colors are black and white, with a central yellow line
on the belly.

The Yello\v-bellied Woodpecker, S. varius, Baird, of
North America east of the Rocky Mountains, is eight
and a quarter inches long, the wing about four and three
quarters inches, and, in addition to characteristics before
mentioned, it has the crown red bordered with black,
chin and throat red, a black patch upon the breast, and
the outer and inner tail feathers varied with white.

The Red-breasted Woodpecker, S. mber, Baird, of
Western North America, is less than nine inches long,
the wing five inches, the head, neck, and breast red.

Williamson's Woodpecker, 5. Williamsonii, Baird, of

SCANSORES: PICIDJE.

the Rocky Mountains, is nine inches long, the wing five
inches ; the head, neck, sides of the breast, and body,
black ; a stripe behind the eye white, a narrow line on
the chin and throat red, tail feathers wholly black, and
the back scarcely spotted.

The Brown-headed Woodpecker, 5". tliyroidcus, Baird,
of Western North America, is about nine inches long,
the wing five inches ; the head dark ashy-brown, the
rest of the body encircled by transverse bands of black
and brownish white, excepting a large, round black patch
upon the breast ; and, as in the preceding members of the
genus, the central line beneath is yellow.

The Genus Hylotomus is represented by the Black
Woodcock, H. pilcatus, Baird, of North America gen-
erally, which is about eighteen inches long, the wing
nine and a half inches ; the general color dull greenish-
black, a narrow white streak above the eye, a wider one
under the eye and along the sides of the head and neck ;
the sides of the breast, under wing coverts, chin, and
beneath the head, white tinged with yellow ; and the
entire crown, from the base of the bill to a well-developed
occipital crest, scarlet. This bird is very shy, and, when
followed by the hunter, goes rapidly from one tree to
another, alighting upon the tallest, and generally keeping
on the side farthest from the pursuer. Its notes are very
loud and clear.

The Genus Centurus comprises Woodpeckers which are
banded above transversely with black and white, the rump
white, the head and under parts brown, and the belly with
a red or yellow tinge.

The Red-bellied Woodpecker, C. carolinus, Bonap., of
North America east of the Rocky Mountains, is nine and
three fourths inches long, the wing five inches, and, in
addition to the characteristics named above, it has the
crown and nape red, forehead white tinged with red, and
the middle of the belly red.

152

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, C. flaviventris, Sw.,

of the Rio Grande region, is nine and a half inches long,

the wing five inches, with a square red patch on the crown.

The Gila Woodpecker, C. uropygialis, Baird, of the

Lower Colorado region, is nine inches long.

The Genus Mclancrpcs comprises Woodpeckers which
have the back black, with or without a white rump, and
variable beneath, but without transverse bands.

Fig. 96. The Red-headed Woodpecker,

M. erythroccphalus, Sw., of North
America, east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, is nine and three fourths
inches long, the wing five and a
half inches, and the head and neck
all round crimson, margined with
a narrow crescent of black upon
the upper part of the breast ; the
back, primaries, and tail, black ; the
under parts, a broad band across
the middle of the wing, and the
rump, white. It excavates a hole
for its nest in a decaying tree ; eggs
four to six, pure white.

The California Woodpecker, M. formicivoms, Bonap.,
of California and eastward, is about nine inches long, the
wing five inches ; above and on the anterior half of the
body glossy black ; the top of the head and a short occip-
ital crest, red ; forehead, rump, and belly, white ; the sides
of head, chin, and broad pectoral band, black ; a collar
on the throat passing up before the eyes into the frontal
band, white tinged with yellow.

Lewis's Woodpecker, M. torquatus, Bonap., of Western
North America, is ten and a half inches long, the wing
six and a half inches ; the color dark glossy green above ;
the breast, lower part of the neck, and a narrow collar

Red-headed Woodpecker,
M. erythrocephahis, Sw.

SCANSORES : PICIDJE.

153

all round, grayish white ; base of the bill and sides of the
head, dark crimson ; belly red, streaked with whitish.

The Genus Colaptcs comprises Woodpeckers with a
slender bill, large feet, and long tail.

The Golden-winged Woodpecker, C. auratus, Sw., of
North America east of the Rocky Mountains, is one of
the most beautiful birds of this family. It is twelve and
a half inches long, the wing six inches, the top of the
head and the upper part of the neck bluish ash, a red
crescent on the nape, the other upper parts, except the
pure white rump, light olivaceous-brown with transverse
bands of black, and a patch upon the cheeks black ; the
lower parts yellowish white tinged with brownish and
ornamented with circular black spots, and with a black
crescent upon the breast. The shafts and under sur-
faces of the wings and tail feathers are gamboge-yellow.
On the first sunny days of spring the Golden-winged
Woodpeckers appear
on the tops of the
decayed trees, and, as
they hop about, strik-
ing with their bills here
and there, make the
woods resound with
their loud, merry notes.
Soon they are paired,
and both male and fe-
male begin to excavate
a hole in a tree for the
nest. The female lays
four to six beautiful
white eggs for each
brood, and two broods

are reared in a SeaSOn. Golden-winged Woodpecker, C. auratus, Sw.

The Red-shafted Flicker, C. mcxicanus, Sw., of Western

7*

154 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

North America, is thirteen inches long, the wing over six
and a half inches, the shafts and under surfaces of the
wing and tail feathers orange-red, a red patch on each
side of the cheek, throat and stripe beneath the eye
bluish ash, and the back glossed with purplish brown.
The female has no red on the cheek.

C. hybridus, Baird, is the name given to woodpeckers
from the Upper Missouri, which combine characteristics
common to both the preceding species.

SUB-SECTION III.

THE ORDER OF INSESSORES, OR PERCHERS.

THE Order of Insessores embraces far more species
than any other in the whole class of birds, and those
which in many cases seem widely different from one
another ; but they agree in many important respects,
especially in their feet, which have three toes directed
forward and one behind, the latter being on the same
level with the others. This Order naturally divides into
three groups, which may be called Sub-Orders, Stri-
sores, Clamatores, and Oscines.

The Sub-Order of Strisores comprises birds which
have the hind toe versatile, or capable of being turned
more or less laterally forward, thus making the bird
appear to have four toes in front. They have ten pri-
maries, and the tail feathers are never more than ten.
The Strisores comprise three families, Trochilidae or
Humming-Bird Family, Cypselidae or Swift Family, Ca-
primulgidas or Goat-sucker Family.

TROCHILID.E, OR HUMMING-BIRD FAMiLY.--This Fam-
ily comprises birds of the smallest size, and of the most
gorgeous plumage to be found in the feathered race.
The beauty and splendor of their colors are beyond
description. One might as well attempt to describe the

INSESSORES : TROCHILID^. 155

rainbow, as the hues of emerald, and ruby, and amethyst,
and topaz, and burnished gold, which flash from these
beautiful forms of life, as they glance among the foliage,
or dart from flower to flower seeking their accustomed
food. They belong exclusively to the continent and
islands of America, and are the most numerous in the
hot regions. Some species range north to the Arctic
regions, and south to Patagonia ; and from the level of
the sea to the cold heights of the Andes. The feet of
humming-birds are very small, the wings very long and
narrow, and the tail broad. Everything in their organiza-
tion contributes to give them great power and rapidity
of flight ; and they are able to balance themselves in the
air, or beside a flower, with a facility that is truly won-
derful, and which finds a parallel only among some of
the insect tribes. The bill is awl-shaped, thin, sharp-
pointed, straight, or curved ; in some cases as long as
the head, and in others much longer. The mandibles
are excavated to the tip for a lodgment of the tongue,
and form a tube by the close fitting of Fig. 9 s.

their cutting edges. The tongue, which
is split almost to its base, forming two
hollow threads, is protruded at will, like
that of the woodpeckers, and by the
same sort of mechanism. The food con- T - col " bris - Linn -
sists of insects and honey, which are secured by extend-
ing the tongue into flowers without opening very wide
the bill. About four hundred species are known ; and
six or more are found in North America.

The Black-throated Humming-Bird, Lampornis mango,
Sw., of South America and perhaps northward to Florida,
is four and a half inches long, and the wing two and six
tenths inches.

The Ruby-throated Humming Bird, Trochilns colnbris,
Linn., of North America to Brazil, is three and a quarter
inches long, and the wing one inch and six tenths.

156 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Black-chinned Humming-Bird, 7! Alcxandri,
Fig. 99. Bourc. & Muls., of California and

southward, is three inches and three
tenths long, and the wing one inch
and seven tenths.

The Red-backed Humming-Bird,
Sclaspliorus riifns, Sw., of Western
Humming-Bird's nest, North America, is three and a half
T. coinbris, Linn. inches long, and the wing over one

inch and a half.

The Broad-tailed Humming-Bird, S. platycercus, Gould,
of Mexico and Texas, is three and a half inches long, and
the wing a little less than two inches.

The Anna Humming-Bird, AttJiis anna, Reichenb., of
California, is three and six tenths inches long, and the
wing two inches.

The Ruffed Humming-Bird, A. costce, Reichenb., of
Southern California, is three and two tenths inches long,
and the wing one inch and three fourths.

CYPSELID.E, OR SWIFT FAMILY. This Family com-
prises small, dull-colored birds, which have the general
appearance of swallows, but differ from the latter in
many essential characteristics. The Swifts have a much
smaller and shorter bill, with the edges greatly inflected ;
the nostrils are superior instead of lateral, and without
bristles ; the wing more falcate, and with ten primaries
instead of nine ; the tail with ten feathers instead of
twelve ; the feet are weaker, the hind toe more or less
versatile, and the anterior toes usually lack the normal
number of joints ; and there are peculiarities in their
vocal organs.

The Genus Panyptila comprises Swifts which have the
legs thick, hind toe directed laterally, legs feathered to
the claws, second primary longest, and tail forked.
The White-throated Swift, P. melanoleuca, Baird, of

INSESSORES : CYPSELID.E.

New Mexico, is five and a half inches long, and the wing
five inches.

The Genus Ncphoecetcs comprises Swifts with naked,
slender legs, forked tail, and first primary longest.

The Northern Swift, N, niger, Baird, of Northwestern
America to the West Indies, is six and three quarters
inches long, with the wing of the same length. The
general color is dark sooty-brown, with a greenish gloss.

The Genus Chcztura is characterized by the even tail
and stiffened shafts projecting as spinous points.

The Chimney Swallow, C. pelasgia, Steph., of North
America east of the Rocky Mountains, is five and a quar-
ter inches long, the wing over five inches.

The Oregon Swift, C. Vauxii, De Kay, of the Pacific
coast, is less than five inches long, and the wing four and
three fourths inches.

CAPRIMULGID/E, OR GOAT-SUCKER FAMILY. This
Family comprises birds with a short triangular bill, and
soft, lax, owl-like plumage. They feed upon insects, which
they capture while upon the wing.

The Genus Antrostomus is characterized by a bill with
conspicuous bristles, rounded wings, broad graduated tail,
and very lax plumage.

Chuck-will's Widow, A. carolinensis, of the South At-
lantic and Gulf States, is twelve inches long, the wing
eight and a half inches, the bristles of the bill with lat-
eral filaments ; general color pale rufous, top of the head
reddish-brown streaked with black, and the terminal two
thirds of the tail, except the four central feathers, ru-
fous-white. The female is without the white upon the
tail. In early spring the forests echo with the notes
of this interesting bird.

The Whippoorwill, A. vociferus, Bonap., of Eastern
United States to the Central Plains, is ten inches long,
the wing six and a half inches, the bristles of the bill

VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

without lateral
filaments. The
general color is
similar to that
of the preced-
ing, the top of
the head ashy
gray, longitudi-

Whippoorwill, A . vcciferus, Bonap. nallv Streaked

with black. Its notes are three, and have a fancied re-
semblance to the syllables whip-poor-will, and hence its
name. It begins its song soon after sunset, and continues
till late at night ; then remains silent till near the dawn,
when it resumes and continues till sunrise. During the
day the Whippoorwill sleeps upon the ground, or on fallen
trunks of trees, or on low branches, and may often be ap-
proached to within a few feet before it flies. It is said
that it always sits with its body parallel to the branch on
which it alights, and never across it. Its eggs are always
two, short elliptical, much rounded, and nearly equal at
both ends ; the color greenish white, spotted and blotched
with bluish gray and light brown. These are laid in
May, on the bare ground or on dry leaves, and in the
most secluded parts of the thickets.

Nuttall's Whippoorwill, A. Nuttalli, Cass., of the high
central plains and westward to the Pacific coast, is eight
inches long, the wing five and a half inches.

The Genus Chordeiles has the bill without bristles, or
with very feeble ones, the wings very long and pointed,
tail narrow, forked, and plumage rather compact.

The Night-Hawk, C. popctue, Baird, of North America
generally, is nine and a half inches long, and the wing
over eight inches, and is so well known as to require no
further description here. Night-Hawks are not strictly
nocturnal, as the name implies ; but are often upon the

INSESSORES : CAPRIMULGID^:.

159

Night-Hawk, C. popetue, Baird.

wing throughout the entire day, Fig - Ior -

especially if it be cloudy. They
are generally most active just
before night, and retire to rest
at dark. Their loud, squeaking
notes, are familiar to all. The
singular loud and half-boom-
ing sound which they make in
plunging from a great height
is said to be produced by the
concussion caused by the new
position of the wings at the
moment when the bird passes
the centre of its plunge and
commences the ascent. The
Night-Hawk makes no nest,
but deposits its two oval, freckled eggs on the bare
ground, or on a flat rock, in fields or in very open woods.

Some persons suppose that the Night-Hawk and Whip-
poorwill are identical, but they do not even belong to
the same genus. The Night-Hawk has the bristles of
the bill hardly appreciable, wings sharp-pointed, longer
than the tail, which is rather narrow, and forked or emar-
ginate. The Whippoorwill has the mouth margined by
long stiff bristles, the wings short, not reaching the end
of the tail, which is short and rounded ; and they differ
in their colors and markings.

The Western Night-Hawk, C. Hcnryi, Cass., of New
Mexico, and the Texas Night-Hawk, C. Tcxensis, Law-
rence, are other North American species.

The Sub-Order of Clamatores comprises birds which
have three toes before and one behind, and the latter not
versatile ; the primaries ten, the first nearly as long as
the second ; and the tail feathers usually twelve. It com-
prises three Families, Alcedinidae or Kingfisher Fam-

i6o

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

Fie

ily, Pronitidse or Saw-bill Family, and Colopteridae or
Flycatcher Family.

ALCEDINID^:, OR KINGFISHER FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds with a large head, a long, straight, sub-
pyramidal bill, very small tongue, short wings, small legs,
very short tarsi, and the outer and middle toes united half
their length.

The Genus Ceryle comprises two species.

The Belted King-
fisher, Ceryle alcyon,
Boie, of the entire con-
tinent of North Amer-
ica, is about thirteen
inches long, the wing
six inches, the head
with a long crest ; the
color above, blue ; be-
neath, and a spot ante-
rior to the eye, white ;
a band across the
breast, and the sides
of the body, like the
back ; the primaries
white on their basal

Belted Kingfisher, Ceryle alcyon, Boie. j^f- and the ^ with

transverse bands and spots of white. Ponds and slow
streams are its favorite resorts, near which it sits on a
branch or decayed limb, and watches for fish, which con-
stitutes its food. At the proper moment it plunges head-
long into the water, seizes the fish, flies to the nearest
tree, and swallows its victim in a moment, and is imme-
diately on the watch for another. Its notes are harsh.
The nest is made in a horizontal hole excavated in a high
bank of a stream, by the mutual labor of the male and
female, to the depth of three to six feet ; eggs six, pure
white.

INSESSORES : PRONITID^:. l6l

The Texas Kingfisher, C. americana, Boie, is much
smaller, being only eight inches long, and the wing three
and a quarter inches ; and the head is only slightly crested.
The upper parts and a pectoral and abdominal band of
blotches, and a line on each side of the thorax, are glossy
green ; the under parts generally, a collar on the back of
the neck, and a double series of spots on the quills, white.

PRONITID^E, OR SAW-BILL FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with the bill as long as the head, gently de-
curved near the tip, but not hooked, and the cutting edges
dentated ; the tarsi rather long, feet large, the middle and
outer toes connected for more than half their length.
Three genera are known, only one of which is repre-
sented in North America.

The Genus Momotus has the bill as long as the head,
both mandibles dentated, and the tail long.

The Saw-Bill, M. cczruliceps, Gould, of Mexico, is fifteen
inches long, the wing five and a half, the general color
yellowish-green, the top of the head and occipital crest
bright blue encircled with black.

COLOPTERID.E, OR FLYCATCHER FAMILY. This Family
comprises small birds which connect the non-melodi-
ous birds with the Oscines, to be noticed hereafter. The
bill in most cases is bent abruptly down at the tip, before
which is a slight notch ; the sides of the mouth are pro-
vided with stiff bristles ; the wings of moderate length,
the first primary always more than half the length of the
second, usually nearly as long as the latter. This large
family is represented in North America by about thirty
species.

The Genus Pachyrhamphus has the Rose-throated Fly-
catcher, P. aglaice, Lafresn., of Mexico to the Rio Grande,
as its only representative in North America. It is seven
and a half inches long, and the wing three and three
fourths inches.

1 62 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Genus Milvulus is characterized by a bill shorter
than the head, tail twice as long as the wing and exces-
sively forked.

The Fork-tailed Flycatcher, M. tyranmts, Bonap., of
South America and accidental in the United States, is
fourteen inches long, wing four and three fourths inches,
the top and sides of the head glossy-black, the rump,
wings, and tail almost black, the rest of the upper parts
ash-gray, the under parts white, and the crown with a
concealed patch of yellow.

The Scissor-tail, M.forficatus, Sw., of Texas to Mexico,
is thirteen inches long, the wing four and three fourths
inches, and is distinguished by the habit of closing and
opening the long feathers of the tail, like the blades of a
pair of scissors.

The Genus Tyranmts has the tail rather shorter than
the wings, and nearly even or only moderately forked,
the wings long and pointed, the outer primaries attenu-
ated, and the head with a concealed patch of red.
The Kingbird or Bee Martin, T. carolincnsis, Baird,
Fig - I03> of North America east of

the Rocky Mountains, is
eight and a half inches
long, the wing less than
five inches, the color above
dark bluish-ash, the lower
parts white, the sides of
the throat and across the
breast tinged with pale blu-
ish-ash, the top and sides
of the head bluish black,

Kingbird, T. carolinensis, Baird. and the Concealed Crest

vermilion in the centre, white behind, and before par-
tially mixed with orange. Its favorite resorts are open
fields or orchards. Perched upon a stake or tall weed

INSESSORESI COLOPTERID.E. 163

or a low tree, it watches for insects, which it darts upon
with unerring aim. It is very courageous, never hesitat-
ing to attack hawks, crows, and other large birds which
it dislikes.

The Gray Kingbird, T. dominicensis, Rich., of the West
Indies and accidental in the Southern States, is eight
inches long, the wing less than four and three fourths
inches.

The Arkansas Flycatcher, T. verticalis, Say, of Western
North America, is eight and a quarter inches long, the
wing four and a half inches, the general color ashy above,
yellow beneath, tail nearly black, wings brown, pectoral
band pale ashy, and the crest vermilion in the centre,
and yellowish before and behind.

Cassin's Flycatcher, T. vocifcrans, Sw., of Mexico and
Texas, is nearly nine inches long, and the wing five and
a quarter inches.

Couch's Flycatcher, T. Couchii, Baird, of Mexico, is
nine inches long, and the wing five inches.

The Genus Myiarchns has the bill wide at base ; tarsus
equal to, or not longer than, the middle toe ; tail broad,
long, even, or slightly rounded, and about equal to the
wings, which scarcely reach to the middle of the tail ;
the head with elongated distinct feathers The general
color above brownish olive, the throat ash, and the belly
yellow.

The Great-crested Flycatcher, M. crimtus, Cab., of
North America east of the Missouri, is eight and three
fourths inches long, the wing four and a quarter inches,
the general color dull greenish-olive above, sides of the
head as high as the upper eyelid, and sides of the neck,
throat, and fore part of the breast, bluish ashy ; the other
under parts bright sulphur-yellow ; head with a depressed
crest. This species delights in forests. Its flight is
rapid and powerful. Seeing an insect, it sweeps down-

164 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

ward, secures it, returns to the tree, swallows its victim,
erects its crest, and immediately utters its harsh, squeak-
ing note.

The Ash-throated Flycatcher, M. mexicanus, Baird, of
California to Texas, closely resembles the preceding, but
the bill is narrower and blacker, tarsi longer, wings less
pointed, the throat and fore part of the breast white, and
the sulphur-yellow of the under parts pale.

Cooper's Flycatcher, M. Cooperi, Baird, and Lawrence's
Flycatcher, M. Lawrencii, Baird, of Mexico, are other
North American species.

The Genus Sayornis is characterized by a depressed,
moderate crest, rather narrow bill, tail long, broad, and
slightly forked, and equal to the wings, which reach to
the middle of the tail.

The Black Flycatcher, 5. nigricans, Bonap., of Western
North America, is about seven inches long, the wing
about three and a half inches, the general color sooty-
brown, under parts and edge of the tail white.

The Pewee or Phoebe Bird, S.fuscus, Baird, of Eastern
North America, is seven inches long, the wing less than
three and a half inches, the general color above brownish
olive, crown darker, the under parts and edge of the tail
yellowish. The Pewee lingers around bridges, old mills,
and caves, in some secure part of which it makes its nest
of mud, grass, and moss, with a soft lining within to re-
ceive the pure white eggs with reddish spots near their
larger end.

Say's Flycatcher, 5. Sayns, Baird, of Western North
America, is seven inches long, the wing four and a third
inches, the general color grayish brown, reddish cinna-
mon beneath.

The Genus Contopus is characterized by very short,
stout tarsi, wings very long and much pointed, and
reaching beyond the middle of the tail, the head moder-

INSESSORES : COLOPTERID.E. 165

ately crested, the general color olive above, pale yellowish
beneath, with a darker patch on the sides of the breast.

The Olive-sided Flycatcher, C. borealis, Baird, of Green-
land and rare upon the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of
North America, is seven and a half inches long, the wing
less than four and a half inches ; in addition to the above-
mentioned characteristics, it has a silky white tuft on
each side of the rump.

The Short-legged Pewee, C. RicJiardsonii, Baird, of
North America, is over six inches long, the wing over
three and a half inches.

The Wood Pewee, C. virens, Cab., of Eastern North
America to the high central plains, is six and a quarter
inches long, the wing three and a half inches ; the upper
parts, side of the head, neck, and breast, dark olivaceous-
brown ; the lower parts pale yellowish tinged with ash
across the breast ; a ring around the eye, and two narrow
bands across the wing, white. The Wood Pewee loves
the dark, quiet retreats of the forest. Here, sitting on a
dry branch, it may always be found in summer and early
autumn, watching for insects, and, with its wings quiver-
ing, uttering its low, melancholy notes. It makes its nest
on a horizontal branch, constructing it of lichens and
mosses without, and of fine grasses and hairs within.
The eggs are four or five, light yellowish, and spotted
with reddish on the larger end.

The Gen\\&EmJ>idonaxi& characterized by long tarsi, tail
a little shorter than the wings, head moderately crested,
the general color olivaceous above, yellowish beneath.

Traill's Flycatcher, E. Traillii, Baird, of the Eastern
United States to Mexico, is six inches long, the wing
two and nine tenths inches.

The Little Flycatcher, E. pusillns, Cab., of Western
North America, is five and a half inches long, the wing
two and eight tenths inches.

1 66 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Least Flycatcher, E. minimus, Baird, of the United
States east of the Missouri plains, is five inches long, the
wing two inches and six tenths.

The Small Green-crested Flycatcher, E. acadiais, Baird,
of the United States east of the Mississippi, is five inches
and six tenths long, and the wing three inches ; the upper
parts, with sides of the head and neck, olive green ; throat
and middle of the belly, white ; the other under parts pale
greenish-yellow.

The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, E. jflaviventris, Baird,
of North America, is over five inches long, the wing less
than three inches ; and distinguished by the bright sul-
phur-yellow of the under parts.

Hammond's Flycatcher, E. Hammondii, Baird, of the
vicinity of Fort Tejon, is five inches and a half long, the
wing less than three inches ; and at once distinguished
by its very slender bill.

Wright's Flycatcher, E. obscurus, Baird, of the Rocky
Mountains, is five and three fourths inches long, and the
wing two and three fourths.

The Genus Pyroccphalus comprises the Red Flycatcher,
P. mbincus, Gray, of the Rio Grande region, which is
five and a half inches long, the wing three and a quarter
inches, the head fully crested, crown and whole under
parts bright carmine ; the remaining upper parts dark
brown.

The Sub-Order of Oscines comprises the true singing-
birds, such as have the larynx provided with five pairs of
peculiar muscles, which are used in the production of
song. North America has twelve families, Turdidae
or Thrush Family, Sylvicolidae or Warbler Family, Hi-
rundinidae or Swallow Family, Bombycillidre or Waxwing
Family, Lanidas or Shrike Family, Liotrichidae or Mock-
ing-Bird Family, Certhiadae or Creeper Family, Paridae
or Titmouse Family, Alaudidae or Lark Family, Fringil-

INSESSORES: TURDID.E. l6/

lidae or Finch Family, Icteridae or Blackbird Family, and
Corvidae or Crow Family.

TURDID/E, OR THRUSH FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with the bill notched near the tip, wings
rather long, primaries ten, of which the first is very
short, the second nearly equal to the longest ; tarsi usu-
ally rather long, and mainly without scutellae, the lateral
toes about equal, and the basal joint of the middle toe
united by its basal two-thirds to the outer, and by its
basal half to the inner toe.

The Genus Turdus has the bill shorter than the head
and stout, culmen gently curved from the base, tarsi
longer than the middle toe, lateral toes nearly equal, but
the outer one longer, the wings pointed and longer than
the tail, which is nearly even, or slightly emarginate.

The Wood Thrush, T. mustclinus, Gm., of the United
States east of the Missouri and southward to Guatemala,
is eight and one tenth inches long, the wing four and a
quarter inches ; the color above clear cinnamon-brown,
the top of the head more rufous, and more olivaceous on
the rump and tail ; the un- Fig. 104.

der parts are clear white,
sometimes tinged with buff
before, and thickly marked
with sub-triangular sharp-
ly-defined spots of black-
ish. The sides of the head
are dark brown streaked
with white, the legs yel-
low, bill brown except its Wood Thrush . T -
yellow base beneath. The nest is built in a laurel, or
other low shrub, and composed of leaves, grass, and mud,
lined with fibrous roots ; eggs four to five, of a uniform
light blue. The Wood Thrush delights in deep shady
glens where there is a brook or little stream, and in thick

1 68 VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

dark woods. Its soft, liquid, half-plaintive notes excel
in sweetness those of any other American bird, and
can only be approximated, never equalled, by those of
the flute in the hands of a master. They are few in
number, but possess a charm beyond description, touch-
ing the heart of every cultivated listener, and calling
forth all the nobler feelings of our nature. Says Au-
dubon, " How often, as the first glimpses of morning
gleamed doubtfully amongst the dusky masses of the
forest-trees, has there come upon my ear the delightful
music of this harbinger of day, and how fervently on
such occasions have I blessed the Being who formed the
Wood Thrush, and placed it in those solitary forests, as
if to console me amidst my privations, to cheer my de-
pressed mind, and to make me feel, as I did, that man
never ought to despair ! "

The Hermit Thrush, 7. Pallasi, Cab., of the United
States east of the Mississippi, is seven and a half inches
long, the wing over three and three quarters inches ; the
color above light olive-brown, passing into rufous on the
rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, and with less intensity
on the outer surface of the wings. The under parts
white, scarcely tinged with buff across the fore part of
the breast ; the sides of the throat and the fore part of
the breast with rather sharply defined subtriangular spots
of dark olive-brown, and the sides of the breast with less
distinct and paler spots of the same ; and there is a
whitish ring around the eye. Its song, as I have learned
since the above was in type, rivals even that of the Wood
Thrush.

The Dwarf Thrush, T. nanns, And., of the Pacific coast
of North America, is very similar to 7. Pallasi, but smaller,
being only six and a half inches long, with the wing three
and a half inches, and the white of the under parts is
purer, and the sides are glossed with bluish ash instead

INSESSORES : TURDID^E. 169

of yellowish olive-brown, and the tail is tinged with
purple.

Wilson's Thrush, T. fusccscens, Stephens, of North
America east of the Missouri, is seven and a half inches
long, the wing four and a quarter inches ; the color above,
and on the sides of the head and neck, nearly uniform
light reddish-brown ; beneath, white, the fore part of the
breast and throat tinged with pale brownish-yellow ; and
the sides of the throat and the fore part of the breast are
marked with small obscurely denned triangular spots of
light brownish.

The Oregon Thrush, T. ustulatus, Nutt, of the Pacific
coast, is seven and a half inches long, the wing three and
three fourths inches.

The Olive-backed Thrush, T. Swainsonii, Cab., of East-
ern North America, Greenland, and southward to Peru,
and accidental in Europe and Siberia, is seven inches
long, the wing over four inches ; the color of the upper
parts uniform olivaceous, with a decided shade of green ;
the fore part of the breast and throat pale brownish-yel-
low, and the rest of the lower parts white ; the sides of
the throat and fore part of the breast with somewhat
rounded spots of well-defined brown.

The Gray-cheeked Thrush, T. aides, Baird, of the Mis-
sissippi region to the Missouri, is nearly eight inches long,
the wing about four and a quarter inches ; the color above
dark olive-green, sides of the head ash-gray ; the under
parts white ; the sides of the throat, and the breast, with
arrow-shaped spots of dark plumbeous-brown.

The Common Robin, T. migratorius, Linn., of all North
America to Mexico, is nine and three fourths inches long,
and the wing nearly five and a half inches ; and is so
well known that it needs no further description. This is
one of the most common and most interesting birds, com-
ing to the temperate districts early in the spring, and
8

170 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

remaining late in the autumn. Some remain through
the whole winter even in New England, but keep in
the thick swamps and on the sunny sides of woods. The
song of the Robin at the close of the early days of spring
is among the sweetest that issues from our groves and
orchards.

The Varied Thrush, T. ncevius, Gm., of Western North
America, and accidental on Long Island and near Bos-
ton, is nine and three fourths inches long, the wing five
inches, and much resembles T. migratorius.

The Misle Thrush, T. viscivorus, Linn., of Europe, is
brown above, the under parts of the wings white, and
breast spotted. It is extremely fond of the mistletoe.

The Genus Saxicola comprises the Stone-Chats, small
birds common in the Old World, and one species inhabits
Greenland and is accidental in the northern portions of
North America.

The Genus Erytliaca comprises the Robin Redbreast,
E. rubecula, Sw., Motacilla mbeciila, Linn., of Europe,
which is familiar to every one, by name. This pretty
little bird is five and a half inches long, brownish gray
above, the throat and breast red, and belly white. It de-
lights in the presence of man, and often enters his dwell-
ing. In the cold weather it sometimes takes up its abode
in houses, and, selecting a perch, warbles its song when
the day is clear or the fire burns brightly.

The Genus Sialia is characterized by a short, stout bill
slightly notched at the tip, wings much longer than the
tail, and the claws considerably curved.

The Blue-Bird, 5. sialis, Baird, of North America east
of the Rocky Mountains, is six and three quarters inches
long, and the wing four inches ; the color above uniform
azure-blue ; beneath reddish-brown, the abdomen and
under tail coverts white. The female has the blue lighter,
and tinged with brown on the head and back. The Blue-

INSESSORES: TURDIDjE. I /I

Bird makes its nest in a hollow apple-tree or post, and
lays four to six pale blue eggs. Two or three broods are
raised in a season, and generally from one nest. While
the female is sitting on the second set of eggs, the male
takes charge of the first brood.

The Western Blue-Bird, .S. mcxicana, Sw., of Western
North America, is six and a half inches long, the wing
four and a quarter inches ; the bill more slender, wings
longer, and blue more intense, than in the preceding.

The Rocky Mountain Blue-Bird, 5. arctica, Sw., of the
Rocky Mountains, is six and a quarter inches long, the
wing over four and a quarter inches ; the color azure-
blue ; the belly and under tail coverts white.

The Genus Regulus has the bill slender, much shorter
than the head, depressed at the base, moderately notched
at the tip ; the rictus well provided with bristles, and
the nostril covered by a single bristly feather projecting
forwards. The birds of this genus are very small, olive
green above, and whitish beneath.

The Ruby-crowned Wren, R. calcn- Fig IOS

dula, Licht, of North America, is four
and a half inches long, and at once dis-
tinguished by the crown, which has a
large concealed patch of scarlet feathers
which are white at the base. Its song
is clear, varied, and harmonious, charm- Ruby-crowned Wren,

,, , , .. R. calendula, Licht.

ing all who hear it.

The Golden-crested Wren, R. satrapa, Licht., of the
Northern United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
is less than four inches long, the wing two and a quarter
inches, and is distinguished by the black of the crown
embracing a central patch of orange-red encircled by
gamboge-yellow ; the forehead, line over the eye, and
space beneath it, white. It is exceedingly active, and
may generally be found with other small birds gleaning

1/2

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

Fig. 106.

among the foliage of trees and bushes in search of mi-
nute insects and larvae.

Cuvier's Golden Crest, R. Ciivieri, Aud., differs mainly
from the preceding in having two black bands on the
crown anteriorly, separated by a whitish one.

The Genus Hydrobata comprises the Water Ouzels.
The American Dipper or Water Ouzel, H. mcxicana,
Baird, of the Rocky Mountains, from British America to
Mexico, is seven and a half inches long, and the wing

four inches ; the color dark plum-
beous above, and paler beneath.
A closely related species is found
in Europe.

The Ouzel frequents moun-
tain streams, into which it walks
or dives, and moves about in
search of aquatic insects and
other small animals, which con-
stitute its food.
SYLVICQLID.E, OR WARBLER FAMILY. This Family
comprises a large number of very small, but exceedingly
beautiful and interesting birds. They are characterized
by a conical, slender, or depressed bill usually half the
length of the head, nine primaries, the first nearly as
long as the second and third, the tarsi distinctly scutel-
late anteriorly, lateral toes nearly equal and shorter than
the middle one, and the basal joint of the middle one
free nearly to its base externally, and united for half
the length interiorly. This family is numerously repre-
sented in all parts of the world. Many species are gen-
erally found in the same locality, and may be seen a
great part of the day gliding among the thick foliage,
busily engaged in catching the minute insects which lurk
beneath the leaves and in the buds and blossoms, and
which for the most part escape the sight of other and

Water Ouzel, H. mexicana Baird.

INSESSORES: SYLVICOLID,E.

larger birds. Some of the warblers and some of the
thrushes are so nearly related, that each is often placed
in the group of the other, according to the importance at-
tached to different characters by different writers. Some
of the warblers are among the sweetest of the feathered

songsters.

The Genus Philomela com- Fig. 107.

prises the Nightingale, P. lus-
cinia, Sw., of Europe, the sweet
and celebrated songster of the
night. It is about six inch-
es long, reddish brown above,
whitish gray beneath.

More than fifty species of Nightingale, P. /,,

Warblers are found in the United States.

The Genus Anthus has the bill slender, much attenu-
ated, and distinctly notched, the wing very long, the first
primary nearly equal to the longest, and the tertials al-
most as long as the primaries.

The Tit-Lark, A. ludoviciamis, Licht, of North Amer-
ica generally and accidental in Europe, is six and a half
inches long, the wing three and three fourths inches ; the
color above olive brown, beneath dull buff or yellowish
brown, with a series of dark brown spots and streaks
across the breast and along the sides. This is one of
the few species of its family which frequent open fields.

The Genus Neocorys is closely related to the preceding,
but is stouter, and the tail shorter.

The Missouri Skylark, N. Spragncii, Sclater, of Ne-
braska, is our only species. It is five and three fourths
inches long, the wing less than three and a half inches.

The Genus Mniotilta comprises the Black and White
Creeper, M. varia, Vieill., of North America east of the
Missouri, which is five inches long, the wing less than
three inches ; the color black, the feathers broadly edged

I 74 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

with white ; the head black ; a median, superciliary, and
maxillary stripe, the middle of the belly, two bands upon
the wings, outer edges of tertials, inner edges of wing
and tail feathers, and a spot on the inner webs of the
outer two tail feathers, white. Its notes are few, being a
series of rapidly repeated tweets, the last one much pro-
longed. It flies only from one tree to another which
is nearest, and which it ascends or descends in a spiral
direction, searching for insects and larvae.

The Genus Panda comprises the Blue Yellow-backed
Warbler, P. americana, Bonap., of North America east
of the Missouri, which is four and three quarters inches
long, the wing about two and one third inches ; the color
blue above, with a patch of yellowish green upon the
back ; under parts yellow before and white behind ; two
white bands across the wings, a small white spot on
either eyelid, and a conspicuous white spot on the outer
two tail feathers. This species utters a soft prolonged
twitter, its only song.

The Genus Protonotaria comprises the Prothonotary
Warbler, P. citrea, Baird, of the Southern and Western
States, which is less than five and a half inches long,
and the wing less than three inches ; the head, neck, and
under parts rich yellow ; back dark olive-green, with a
tinge of yellow ; rump, tail above, and wings, bluish ash.

The Genus GeotJilypis has the bill distinctly notched,
bristles short or wanting, wings short and rounded, tail
long, the general color olive green above, yellow below.

The Maryland Yellow-throat,

Fig. 108. /

G. tric/ias, Cab., of North Amer-
ica, is five and a half inches long,
the wing two and four tenths
inches ; and readily distinguished
by a band of black on the fore-

Maryland Yellow-throat, female, i i i i j

c.tricho*,&b. head > cheeks, and ear-coverts.

INSESSORES: SYLVICOLID^E. 175

The female is without the black band. This Warbler
builds its nest upon the ground, and lays four to six
white eggs speckled with light brown.

The Gray-headed Warbler, G. vclatus, Cab., of the
West Indies, and perhaps found in the United States,
is four and three fourths inches long, and distinguished
from the preceding by a narrower black frontal band,
and by the dark ash of the crown.

The Mourning Warbler, G. Philadelphia, Baird, of East-
ern North America, is five and a half inches long, the
wing less than two and a half inches ; and distinguished
by the ashy gray of the head and neck, and the black
patch on the fore part of the breast.

Macgillivray's Warbler, G. Macgillivrayi, Baird, of
Western North America, is five inches long, the wing
less than two and a half inches, the head and neck ash,
a narrow frontlet and space around the eye black, the
feathers of the forward under parts really black, but
appearing gray from the ashy tips of the feathers ; the
rest of the upper parts dark olive -green, and of the lower,
yellow.

The Genus Oporornis has the bill rather compressed,
wings elongated, tail slightly rounded, tarsi elongated,
and claws large ; above olive green beneath yellow.

The Connecticut Warbler, 0. agilis, Baird, of the
Eastern United States, very rare, is six inches long,
the wing three inches.

The Kentucky Warbler, O. formosns, Baird, of the
Eastern United States, is five inches long, the wing
less than three ; and distinguished by the yellow throat
and superciliary stripe, and by the top of the head
and streak beneath the eye, which are black.

The Genus Ictcria comprises the Chats.

The Yellow-breasted Chat, /. viridis, Bonap., of the
United States east of the Missouri, is nearly seven and

176 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

a half inches long, the wing three and a quarter inches ;
the color of the upper parts olive-green, the forward half
of the under parts, including the inside of the wing,
gamboge-yellow ; the rest of the under parts white.

The Long-tailed Chat, /. longicauda, Lawr., of Western
North America, is seven inches long, and very similar to
the preceding, but with a longer tail.

The Genus Helmitherus has the bill large, stout, com-
pressed, about as long as the head, with neither notch
nor bristles ; tarsi short, wings long.

The Worm-eating Warbler, H. vermivorns, Bonap., of
the United States east of the Missouri, is five and a half
inches long, the wing three inches ; the upper parts clear
olive-green, the head with four black stripes and three
brownish-yellow ones ; the under parts pale brownish-
yellow, tinged with buff across the breast.

Swainson's Warbler, H. Swainsonii, Bonap., of the
Southern States, is over five inches and a half long, the
wing less than three inches ; above dull olive-green, a
superciliary stripe and the under parts of the body white,
tinged with yellow.

The Genus Helmintkophaga has the bill elongated, very
acute, without a notch, wings long and pointed, the first
quill nearly or quite the longest, tail nearly even and
rather slender, and the tarsi longer than the middle toe.

The Blue-winged Yellow Warbler, H. pinus, Baird, of
the United States east of the Missouri, is four and a half
inches long, the wing two and four tenths inches ; above
olive-green, the wings and tail bluish-gray, the crown and
under parts rich orange-yellow. Its nest is elongated
and attached by its upper edge to several stout stalks of
grass ; eggs four to six, pure white, with a few pale red
spots at the larger end.

The Golden-winged Warbler, H. chrysoptera, Baird, of
the United States east of the Missouri, is about five inches

INSESSORES: SYLVICOLIDvE. 1 77

long, the wing less than two and three fourths inches ;
the upper parts bluish gray, the head above and a large
patch upon the wings yellow ; the throat and fore part
of the breast black, the rest of the under parts white.

Bachman's Warbler, H. Bachmani, Cab., of the South-
ern States, is four and a half inches long, the color olive
green above ; the throat, fore part of the breast, and
band across the crown, black ; the forehead, lesser wing-
coverts, chin, and under parts, yellow.

The Nashville Warbler, H. ruficapilla, Baird, of the
United*States east of the Missouri, is over four and a half
inches long, the wing less than two and a half inches ;
the color olive green above, under parts deep yellow.

The Orange-crowned Warbler, H. cclata, Baird, of
Western North America, is less than five inches long,
the wing two and a quarter inches, the color above olive
green, the under parts greenish yellow, and there is a con-
cealed patch of pale brownish-orange on the crown.

The Tennessee Warbler, H. pcregrina, Cab., of the
United States east of the Missouri, is four and a half
inches long, the wing two and three fourths inches ; the
color above olive green, beneath dull white, the top and
sides of the head ash gray.

The Genus Seiurus has the bill compressed, distinctly
notched, and with very short bristles ; the wings longer
than the tail, which is slightly rounded, and the feathers
acuminate ; the color above olivaceous, beneath whitish.

The Golden-crowned Thrush, or Oven-Bird, S. auroca-
pillus, Sw., of North America east of the Missouri, is six
inches long, the wing three inches ; the middle of the
crown brownish orange bordered by black. Its nest is
on the ground, and is oven-shaped ; eggs white, spotted
with reddish brown near the larger end.

The Water Thrush, 5. noveboraccusis, Nutt, of the
United States east of the Missouri and southward, is

i/8 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

over six inches long, and the wing over three inches,
the bill small, a superciliary stripe brownish yellow, the
under parts streaked with olivaceous brown, and the
breast almost black.

The Large-billed Water-Thrush, 5. ludovicianus, Bonap.,
of the United States east of the Missouri, is six and one
third inches long, the wing three and a quarter inches ;
and distinguished by its large bill, and superciliary white
stripe.

The Genus Dendroica, formerly Sylvicola, has the bill
attenuated, depressed at the base, compressed from the
middle, bill distinctly notched, bristles short but distinct,
tarsi long, the hind claw long, the wings long and pointed,
the second quill usually a very little longer than the first,
tail slightly rounded, and always with a white spot. More
than twenty species belonging to this genus are found in
the United States. By adopting the synopsis of the spe-
cies as given by Baird, they may readily be defined.

A. Those belonging to this group have the chin, throat,
and fore part of the breast black bordered by lighter,
the back streaked, two white bands upon the wing, and
the outer tail-feathers mainly white.

The Black-throated Green Warbler, D. vireiis, Baird,
of the United States east of the Missouri, is five inches
long, the wing over two and a half inches, the crown and
back olive, the forehead, superciliary and maxillary stripes

yellow.

The Western Warbler, D. occidentalis, Baird, of the

Pacific coast, is four and seven tenths inches long, the
wing two and seven tenths inches, the top and sides of
the head yellow, the back ash conspicuously streaked.

Townsend's Warbler, D. Townsendii, Baird, of the Pa-
cific coast, is five inches long, the wing two and six tenths
inches, the crown blackish, back olive, superciliary and
maxillary stripes yellow.

INSESSORES: SYLVICOLID^:. 179

The Black-throated Gray Warbler, D. nigrescens, Baird,
of the Pacific coast, is four and seven tenths inches long,
the wing two and three tenths, the crown black, back
ash, superciliary and maxillary stripe white.

B. This group comprises those which have the sides
and under parts of the head black.

The Black-throated Blue Warbler, D. canadensis, Baird,
of the United States east of the Missouri, is five and a
half inches long, the wing two and six tenths, blue above,
white beneath, primaries with a whi.te patch at base, and
the sides and under parts of the head black.

C. Those in this group have a central longitudinal
yellow patch on the crown.

The Yellow-rump Warbler, D. coronata, Gray, of East-
ern North America to the Missouri plains, is five and six
tenths inches long, the wing three inches, the color slate-
blue above, throat white, breast blackish, the sides and
rump with a yellow patch.

Audubon's Warbler, D. Audubonii, Baird, of Western
North America, is five and a quarter inches long, the
wing nearly three and a quarter inches, the throat yellow,
and one large white patch upon the wing.

The Blackburnian Warbler, D.
Blackburnice, Baird, of North Amer-
ica east of the Missouri, is five and
a half inches long, the wing less
than three inches, the back black,
throat bright orange, and a patch

.1 i .-, f , Blackburnian Warbler,

on the wing and outer tail-feathers D , Blackburnitet Ba ird.
white.

D. In this group the sides and throat are chestnut,
and the back streaked.

The Bay-breasted Warbler, D. castanea, Baird, of North
America east of the Missouri, is five inches long, the
wing three inches, the crown chestnut, sides of the head
black, and belly white.

1 8O VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

E. Those in this group have the under parts white,
back streaked with black, and the wings with white bands.

The Chestnut-sided Warbler, D. pennsylvanica, Baird,
of the United States east of the Missouri, is five inches
long, the wing two and a half inches, the crown yellow
encircled with white, sides of the head black, enclosing a
white patch behind, and sides of the body chestnut.

The Blue Warbler, D. ccerulea, Baird, of the United
States east of the Missouri, is four and a quarter inches
long, the wing over two and a half inches, blue above
and across the breast, the sides of the crown and body
streaked with black.

The Black Poll Warbler, D. striata, Baird, of North
America east of the Missouri, is five and three quarters
inches long, the wing three inches, the crown and streaks
upon the sides black, the cheeks below the eye white.

F. Those of this group have the throat uniform yel-
low, separated from the belly by a series of pectoral
streaks, and the sides are streaked.

The Pine-Creeping Warbler, D. pimis, Baird, of North
America east of the Missouri, is five and a half inches
long, and the wing three inches, olive green above, and
yellow beneath ; two dull white bands upon the wings.

The Blue Mountain Warbler, D. montana, Baird, of the
Blue Mountains, Virginia, is four and three quarters
inches long, olive green above, forehead and under parts
yellow.

The Yellow Warbler, D. astiva, Baird, of the United
States, is five and a quarter inches long, the wing over
two and a half inches, the general color yellow, back oliva-
ceous, ventral streaks brownish red.

The Black and Yellow Warbler, D. macnlosa, Baird, of
the United States east of the Missouri, is five inches
long, the wing two and a half inches, the crown blue,
rump yellow, sides of the head and back black, spots on

INSESSORES : SYLVICOLID^E. l8l

the central third of the tail and a large patch upon the
wing white, and large black streaks on the under parts.

Kirtland's Warbler, D. Kirtlandii, Baird, of Ohio, is
five and a half inches long, the wing two and eight tenths
inches, blue above streaked with black, the sides of the
head and inferior streaks black, and a white patch at the
end of the tail.

The Yellow-Red }*Q\\,D.palmariim, Baird, of the United
States east of the Mississippi, is five inches long, the wing
nearly two and a half inches, the crown, sides of the head,
and inferior streaks rufous, rump greenish-yellow, a white
spot on the end of the tail, superciliary streak and under
parts yellow.

The Cape May Warbler, D. tigrina, Baird, of the United
States east of the Mississippi, is five and a quarter inches
long, the wing nearly three inches, the bill acute and de-
curved, the color olive above, rump and under parts yel-
low, crown blackish, sides of the head chestnut.

G. Those of this group have the throat yellow, and
not separated from the belly by pectoral streaks.

The Carbonated Warbler, D. carbonata, Baird, of Ken-
tucky, is four and three quarters inches long, olive green
above, spotted with black, crown black, beneath yellow-
ish, a band on the wing and edge of the tail whitish.

The Yellow-throated Warbler, D. snpcrciliosa, Baird,
from Pennsylvania to the Missouri, is over five inches long,
the wing over two and a half inches, the back slate-col-
ored, under parts white, crown and sides of the head and
neck black, superciliary stripe yellow, changing to white
behind.

The Prairie Warbler, D. discolor, Baird, of the Atlantic
States, is nearly five inches long, the wing two and a
quarter inches ; olivaceous above, the back streaked with
red ; under parts and superciliary stripe yellow, and a
black mark on the side of the head.

1 82 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Genus Sylvia comprises the Tailor-Bird, 5. sutoria,
Lath., of the East Indies, which is about five inches long,
and celebrated for the ingenious way in which it prepares
a place for its nest. Picking up a leaf, it sews its edges,
with a thread which it makes or finds, to a living leaf,
leaving an opening above ; and thus a pouch is formed
which is suspended by the leaf-stalk of the living leaf.
In the bottom of this the nest is made. Sometimes it
sews together two contiguous living leaves.

The Genus Myiodioctes is characterized by a depressed
bill notched at the tip, the gape with long bristles, wings
longer than the tail, and the latter rounded or graduated ;
the colors olive or plumbeous above, and yellow beneath.

The Hooded Warbler, M. mitratus, Aud., of the United
States east of the Missouri, is five inches long, the wing
two and three quarters inches, the head and neck black,
back olive green, the front, cheeks, and under parts yel-
low, and the tail with white on the outer feathers.

The Small-headed Flycatcher, M. minntits, Baird, of
the Atlantic States, is five inches long, olive above, yellow
beneath, and the wings with two white bands.

The Green Black-cap Flycatcher, M. pusillns, Bonap.,
of the United States, is four and three quarters inches
long, the wing two and a quarter inches, the upper parts
olive, the forehead, line over the eye, and under parts
bright yellow, the crown with a black patch.

The Canada Flycatcher, M. canadcnsis, Aud., of the
United States east of the Mississippi, is about five and
a third inches long, the wing about two and two thirds
inches, the back bluish ; streaks upon the crown, stripe
on the side of the head and neck, and collar of streaks
upon the breast, black.

Bonaparte's Flycatcher, M. Bonapartii, Aud., of Lou-
isiana, is over five inches long, and closely resembles the
preceding species.

INSESSORES : SYLVICOLID.E. 183

The Genus Cardellina comprises the Vermilion Fly-
catcher, C. rnbra, Bonap., of Northern Mexico, which is
over five and a half inches long, the color dark crimson.

The Genus Sctopliaga has the bill depressed, the tip
abruptly decurved and much notched, the rictus with
long bristles, wings rounded, and tail short.

The Redstart, S. mticilla, Sw., of the United States
east of the Missouri, is five and a quarter inches long,
the wing two and a half inches, the general color black,
the sides of the breast and base of the quills and tail
reddish orange, and the abdomen white. This is one of
the handsomest and liveliest birds of our forests. It is
almost constantly hunting insects along the branches,
and with every movement it opens and shuts its beautiful
tail, then flirts it from side to side, and at the same time
utters its pleasing tetee whee. The nest is built upon a
low bush, and appears to hang to the twigs ; eggs four to
six, white, sprinkled with ashy gray and blackish dots.

The Painted Flycatcher, S. picta, Sw., of Northern
Mexico, is five and a quarter inches long, the wing two
and a half inches, the color black, belly red, patch on the
wings and outer tail-feathers white.

The Genus Pyranga has the bill rather straight, notched
at the tip, the wings elongated, the color of the male
scarlet, of the female yellowish.

The Scarlet Tanager, P. rnbra, Vieill., of the United
States east of the Missouri, is seven and four tenths
inches long, the wing four inches, the color bright scar-
let, wings and tail black. Its notes are not very musical,
and have been represented by Wilson by the syllables
chip cJinrr. Its nest is on a low branch of a tree ; eggs
three to five, dull greenish-blue, speckled with reddish
brown and light purple.

The Summer Red Bird, P. czstiva, Vieill., of the South-
ern Atlantic and Gulf States, is seven and one fifth

184 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

inches long, the wing three and three quarters inches ;
the color light red, back more dusky.

The Rocky Mountain Tanager, P. hepatica, Sw., is eight
inches long, and dark scarlet-red tinged with ashy on the
back and sides.

The Louisiana Tanager, P. Indoviciana, Bonap., of
Western North America, is seven and a quarter inches
long, the wing over three and a half inches ; the general
color of the interscapular region, wings, and tail, black ;
head and throat tinged with scarlet, and the wings with
two whitish bands.

The Genus Euphonia comprises the Blue-headed Tana-
ger, E. elcgantissima, Gray, of Mexico, which is about
four and two thirds inches long, the wing two and three
quarters inches, bluish black above, yellowish below, the
top of the head blue.

HIRUNDINID,E, OR SWALLOW FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds with a very short, depressed, and tri-
angular bill, very long wings, very short tarsi, and tail
generally forked.

The Genus Hirundo has the tail more or less forked.

The Barn Swallow, H. horreorum, Barton, of North
America, is six and nine tenths inches long, the wings
five inches, and the tail excessively forked ; the color
steel-blue above, forehead and throat chestnut brown,
belly reddish white.

The Cliff Swallow, //. htnifrons, Say, of North America,
is five inches long, the wing less than four and a half
inches, the tail emarginate, the crown and back steel-
blue, throat and sides of the head dark chestnut, breast
fuscous, belly white.

The White-bellied Swallow, H. bicolor, Vieill., of North
America, is six and a quarter inches long, the wing five
inches ; glossy metallic green above, white beneath.

The Violet-Green Swallow, H. tJialassina, Sw., of West-

INSESSORES I HIRUNDINID^E. 185

ern North America, is four and three quarters inches long,
the wing four and a half inches, the tail acutely emargi-
nate ; the color green above, pure white below.

The Edible Swallow-nest Swallow, H. esculenta, Linn.,
is a very small species of the East Indies, whose nests,
composed of a whitish gelatinous substance, are held in
high estimation by epicures, and which constitute an im-
portant article of commerce.

The Genus Cotyle is distinguished from Hirundo by the
slightly forked tail, very slender toes, and dull color.

The Bank Swallow, C. riparia, Boie, of North America,
is four and three quarters inches long, the wing four inches ;
the upper parts grayish brown, under parts white, with a
band across the breast like the back.

The Rough-winged Swallow, C. scrripennis, Bonap., of
North America, is four and a half inches long, the first
primary with the outer web much stiffened ; the color
sooty brown above, grayish beneath.

The Genus P rogue has the bill strong and short, toes
long and strong, and the size is the largest of the family.

The Purple Martin, P. purpurea, Boie, of North Amer-
ica, is seven and three tenths inches long, the wing less
than six inches ; the color glossy steel-blue, with purple
and violet reflections.

It need scarcely be stated, that the notion which some
entertain, that swallows spend the winter at the bottom
of ponds, is entirely erroneous.

BoMBYciLLiDyE, OR WAXWiNG FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds with the bill short, broad, much de-
pressed, and the gape opening to the eyes ; both man-
dibles notched, the upper with a tooth behind the notch,
the outer lateral toe the longest, and the head generally
crested.

The Genus Ampclis Waxwings has the tail even,
and some of the quills with horny appendages that look
like sealing-wax.

1 86 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Bohemian Chatterer or Waxwing, A. garntlns,
Linn., of the northern parts of both continents, is nearly
seven and a half inches long, the wing four and a half
inches ; the general color brownish ash, primaries and tail-
feathers plumbeous black, the tail with a terminal band of
yellow, the head and throat marked with black, the wings
with white, and the secondaries have red horny tips.

The Cedar Bird, A. cedrornm, Baird, of North America,
is seven and a quarter inches long, the wing over four
inches ; the general color reddish olive passing into yel-
low below, and posteriorly above into ashy ; the forehead,
space below the eye, and a line above it, intense black ;
the quills and tail dark plumbeous and dusky, the tail
tipped with yellow ; and the secondaries have red horny
tips. It is impossible to describe the plumage of this
beautiful bird, it is so silky, and its tints so delicate in
their shadings. The Cedar Bird builds her nest in low
trees or bushes, and lays four purplish white eggs marked
with black spots.

The Genus Myiadcstes comprises Townsend's Flycatch-
er, M. Townsendii, Cab., of Western North America, which
is eight inches long, the wing four and a half inches, the
tail deeply forked, the general color bluish ash.

LANID.E, OR SHRIKE FAMILY. This Family comprises
birds with a strong compressed bill, the tip abruptly
hooked, both mandibles distinctly notched, the upper
with a distinct tooth, the lower with the point bent up-
ward, and the tarsi longer than the middle toe and
strongly scutellate. This family comprises the Shrikes
and the Vireos.

The Genus Collyrio has the bill shorter than the head,
the tip of the lower mandible bent upward, rictus with
long bristles, legs stout, wings rounded, and claws very
sharp.

The Great Northern Shrike, or Butcher-Bird, C. borealis,

INSESSORES : LANID,E. iS/

Baird, of North America, is nearly nine inches long, the
wing four and a half inches, the color above light blu-
ish ash, the un- Fi s- II0 -
der parts white,
the breast with
fine transverse
lines; the wings
and tail black.
It preys mainly
on insects, spar-
rows, and Other Great Northern Shrike, C. torealis, Baird.

small birds. It has the power of imitating the sounds of
other birds, especially those indicating distress ; and has
the singular habit of impaling birds and insects upon the
points of twigs and thorns ; but for what object is not
well understood.

The Loggerhead Shrike, C. ludomcianns, Baird, of the
South Atlantic and Gulf States, is nine inches long, and
the wing nearly four inches.

The White-rumped Shrike, C. c.rcubitoroides, Baird, of
Western North America, is eight and three quarters inches
long, and the wing nearly four inches.

The White-winged Shrike, C. clcgans, Baird, inhabits
Western North America.

The Genus Vireo has the bill short, compressed, the
tip bent downward, wings rather long and pointed, tail
nearly even, and tarsi longer than the middle toe.

The Red-eyed Vireo or Flycatcher, V. olivaceus, Vieill.,
of North America east of the Missouri, is six and a half
inches long, the wing three and a half inches ; olive green
above, white below, the crown dark ash, and iris red ; a
whitish line from the bill over the eye, a dark line between
this and the ashy crown, and a dusky line through the eye.
This is one of the earliest singers of spring, and latest of
autumn. Its notes are loud, clear, and melodious, and

1 88 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

are heard throughout the day among the taller trees.
The nest is generally suspended from forked twigs ; eggs
four to six, spotted with reddish brown at the larger end.
The Yellow-green Vireo, V.flavoviridis, Cass., of North-
ern Mexico and southward, closely resembles the preced-
ing, but the colors are more strongly marked.

Bartram's Vireo, V. virescens, Vieill., of Central and
South America and possibly of the Atlantic United
States, resembles V. olivaceus, but is smaller.

The Whip Tom Kelly, V. altiloquus, Gray, of Florida
and the West Indies, is very similar to V. olivaceus.

The Warbling Flycatcher or
Vireo, V.gilvus, Bonap., of North
America, is about five and a half
inches long, the wing about three
inches ; the color olive green
above, beneath white, tinged with
very pale yellow on the breast
warbling Flycatcher, and sides. Its song is low, mel-

V.gilw, Bonap. 1 OW , End SWCCt.

The Philadelphia Vireo, V. philadclphiais, Cass., of
Pennsylvania to Wisconsin, closely resembles the pre-
ceding one, but is at once distinguished by the absence
of the spurious primary.

Bell's Vireo, V. Belli, Aud., of Missouri River and Texas,
is four and a quarter inches long, the wing two and a
quarter inches, and is very similar to V. gilvus, but
smaller, and the spurious primary is large.

The Black-headed Flycatcher, V. atricapillus, Woodh.,
of Texas, is four and three quarters inches long, the wing
over two inches ; olive green above, white beneath, the
head and neck above and on the sides black.

The White-eyed Vireo, V. noveboracensis, Bonap., of
North America east of the Missouri, is five inches long,
the wing two and a half inches, the spurious primary

INSESSORES : LIOTRICHID^E. 189

half the length of the second ; the upper parts bright
olivaceous-green ; under parts white, the sides of the
breast and body yellow. The space around the eyes is
greenish yellow, and the iris is white ; the wings have two
yellowish-white bands. This bird frequents the thickest
bushes. It sings with great spirit, and often throughout
the day. The nest is attached to the twigs of a low
bush ; eggs four to six, pure white, marked with dark
spots near the larger end.

Hutton's Flycatcher, V. Huttoni, Cass., of Southern
California, is about the same size as the preceding one,
but has the bill much more slender.

The Blue-headed Flycatcher, V. solitarius, Vieill., of
North America, is five and a half inches long, the wing
two and four tenths inches, the spurious primary very
small ; olive green above, top and sides of the head and
upper part of the neck dark bluish-ash ; under parts
white, the sides under the wings greenish yellow.

The Yellow-throated Flycatcher, V. flavifrons, Vieill.,
of North America east of the Missouri, is six inches long,
the wing over three inches, and with no spurious primary ;
the color from the bill to the middle of the back, sides
of the head, neck, and fore part of the breast, olive green ;
the rest of the upper parts ashy blue. The under parts,
from the bill to the middle of the belly, with a ring around
the eye, sulphur-yellow ; the remaining under parts white.
This bird prefers the taller trees, whose branches it as-
cends by regular short hops, searching every leaf in its
way. Its notes are measured and plaintive. The nest is
attached to the extremity of small twigs, and is sometimes
five or six inches deep ; it is an exceedingly interesting
structure. The eggs are four to five, white, spotted with
reddish brown.

LIOTRICHID^:, OR MOCKING-BIRD FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises birds with the bill slender, straight, or curved,

IQO VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

as long or longer than the head, slightly notched, or not
at all ; the wings short, concave, and rounded, the tarsi
long, and generally strongly scutellate. This is an exten-
sive family, and embraces forms which at first seem to
differ greatly, but which are now regarded as related in
their most essential characteristics.

The Genus Mimns has the bill shorter than the head,
decurved from the base, and distinctly notched.

The Mocking-Bird,

Fig. 112. '

M.polyglottus, Boie, of
the Southern States, is
nine and a half inches
long, the wing four
and a half inches ;
olive gray above, whit-
ish beneath, the wing
and tail black, the base

Mocking-Bird, M.

the tip of the tail white. This bird imitates with ease
the songs and notes of all the birds he hears. Audubon
considers the singing of our Mocking-Bird superior to that
of the Nightingale.

The Cat Bird, M. carolinensis, Gray, of the United
States east of the Missouri, is less than nine inches long,
the wing over three and a half inches ; the general color
dark plumbeous ; the under tail coverts dark brownish-
chestnut. In spring its song is exceedingly varied, mel-
low, and sweet. It also possesses a remarkable power of
imitating the notes of other birds, and has been heard to
imitate perfectly a strain of Yankee Doodle. Sometimes
it mews or yawls like a cat, and in a most disagreeable
manner, which greatly detracts from its proper estima-
tion; because all do not know that at times it sends forth
the sweetest music. The nest is generally built in low
bushes, and composed of dry twigs and grass without,

INSESSORES: LIOTRICHIDyE.

fibrous roots within ; eggs four to six, glossy greenish-
blue. Two broods are raised in a season.

The Genus Orcoscoptcs comprises the Mountain Mock-
ing-Bird, O. montanus, Baird, of Western North Amer-
ica, which is eight inches long, and the wing nearly five
inches, and with the bill longer and more slender than in
Mimus.

The Genus Harporhynchus has the bill as long as or
longer than the head, no notch, the wings short, and tail
long.

The California Thrush, H. rcdivivus, Cab., of Califor-
nia, is eleven and a half inches long, the wing over four
inches, the bill much decurved and longer than the head.
The color above brownish olive, beneath pale cinnamon,
deepening into rufous on the under tail-coverts.

Five additional species of this genus are found in Mex-
ico and California.

The Brown Thrush, H. rnfus, Cab., of North America
east of the Missouri, is over eleven inches long, the wing
over four inches ; the color above light cinnamon-red, be-
neath pale rufous-white, with longitudinal streaks of dark
brown. In the pleasant spring mornings, this bird utters
the sweetest melodies from the topmost twigs of some
isolated tree. Later in the day, and at all times late in
the season, it prefers low thick bushes. Its flight is low
and heavy, and continued only a few rods at a time.
The nest is made in a clump of low bushes a few feet
from the ground ; the eggs four to six, dull buff thickly
sprinkled with dots of brown.

The Genus Campy lorhynchus comprises C. brunneica-
pillus, Gray, Southwestern North America, which is eight
inches long, the wing nearly three and a half inches, and
is the largest Wren in the United States.

The Genus Catherpes comprises the White-throated
Wren, C. mexicanus, Baird, of the Rio Grande region,

192 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

which is six and a half inches long, the wing two and a
half inches.

The Genus Salpinctcs comprises the Rock Wren, 5.
obsoletus, Cab., of the Rocky Mountains, which is five
and seven tenths inches long, the wing less than three
inches.

The Genus TJuyothorus has the bill about as long as
the head, nearly straight to the tip, which is abruptly de-
curved. The wings are about equal to the tail, which is
arched and nearly even, and the tarsus longer than the
middle toe.

The Great Carolina Wren, T. ludovicianus, Bonap., of
the United States north to Pennsylvania and west to the
Missouri, is six inches long, the wing two and six tenths
inches, the color reddish brown above, beneath pale yel-
lowish-rusty.

Berlandier's Wren, T. Berlandierii, Couch, of Mexico,
closely resembles the preceding, but is smaller.

Bewick's Wren, T. Bewickii, Bonap., of North America,
is five and a half inches long, the wing two and a quarter
inches ; the color rufous brown above, plumbeous white
below, wings and innermost tail-feathers barred with
dusky ; the remaining tail-feathers mostly black, marked
with white.

The Genus Cistothorus has the tail much graduated
and shorter than the wings, and the feet stout.

The Long-billed Marsh Wren, C. palustris, Cab., of
North America, is five and a half inches long, the wing
over two inches ; the upper parts dull reddish brown ;
the crown, interscapular region, outer surface of tertials,
and tail feathers, almost black ; the under parts and
streak over the eye white. This species lives among
the rank vegetation growing around inlets to the sea.
Here it builds its nest, and lays six or more eggs, of a
deep chocolate color.

INSESSORES I LIOTRICHID.E. 193

The Short-billed Marsh Wren, C. stellaris, Cab., of the
United States east of the Platte River, is four and a half
inches long, the wing one inch and three fourths ; the
bill is scarcely half the length of the head ; the hind part
of the crown, back, and rump, almost black, streaked with
white ; under parts white ; the sides, upper part of the
breast, and under tail-coverts, reddish brown. This spe-
cies lives in marshy fresh-water meadows, and is very
shy. When uttering its lively song, it stands on a tuft of
sedge or a low bush, and its head and tail are alternately
depressed and elevated as if the body were moving on a
pivot.

The Genus Troglodytes has the bill nearly as long as
the head, compressed, decurved ; and the wings about
equal to the tail.

The House Wren, T. czdon, Vieill., of North America
east of the Missouri, is nearly five inches long, the wing
over two inches ; the color above reddish brown, barred
with dusky, under parts brownish gray. This wren de-
lights in being near the habitations of man, and builds
its nest in any hole it finds in the timbers or walls of our
buildings, or in a hollow tree of the orchard or garden.
The nest is formed of dry twigs and grasses, and lined
with soft materials ; eggs five or six, pale reddish.

Parkman's Wren, T. Parkmanni, Aud., of Western
North America, is very similar to the preceding, but
the colors are grayer.

The Wood Wren, T. amcricamis, Aud., of Eastern
United States, is four and a half inches long, the wing
two inches, and is very similar to T. cedon ; but the bill
is shorter, tail more graduated, colors darker, and there
is no light line over the eye.

The Winter Wren, T. hyemalis, Vieill., of North Amer-
ica, is four inches long, the wing over one inch and a half;
the upper parts reddish brown, marked with transverse

9 M

194 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

Fl 's- "3- bars of dusky and light, except on

the head and upper part of the
back ; beneath pale reddish-brown,
more or less spotted and barred. The
scapulars, wing coverts, and outer web
of primaries are spotted with white.
The motions of the Winter Wren are
exceedingly varied, rapid, and precise.

Winter Wren, J t ma y ^6 seen j n a score o f

T. hyemalis, Vieill. ;

tudes in the course of a few minutes.
Now it is on one side of a brush-heap, and in a moment
it has passed through and appears on the other. It
reaches the upper branches of a small tree by hopping
from twig to twig, and in the course of its passage pre-
sents each side in turn to you a dozen times ; and when
at the top it utters a delicate melody, and then dashes
headlong, and is out of sight in a moment. Audubon
says that the song of the Winter Wren excels that of any
other bird of its size with which he is acquainted. The
nest is long and bag-like, and attached to a rock or tree
near the ground. It is made of moss and lichens, and
lined with hair and feathers. The eggs are six or more,
of the most delicate rose-color, dotted with reddish brown.

The Genus Chamcea comprises the Ground Tit, C. fas-
data, Gambel, of California, which is six inches long ; the
upper parts olivaceous brown, the lower pale brownish-
cinnamon.

CERTHIADJE, OR CREEPER FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with the bill slender, as long or longer than
the head, without a notch ; and the entire basal joint of
the middle toe united to the lateral ones.

The Genus Certhia has the bill as long as the head,
and much compressed and decurved from the base.

The American Creeper, C. americana, Bonap., of North
America, is five and a half inches long, the wing over

INSESSORES : CERTHIAD.E.

195

American Creeper,

C. amcricana,

Bonap.

Fig. 115.

two and a half inches ; the color above Fl 's- "*
dark brown, each feather streaked cen-
trally with whitish, and the rump rusty ;
the under parts, and a streak over the eye,
white ; and the wings with a bar of red-
dish white across both webs.

The Genus Sitta has the bill subulate,
acutely pointed, compressed, and about as
long as the head.

The White-bellied Nuthatch, 5. caroli-
ncnsis, Gm., of North America east of the
Central Plains, is six inches long, the wing
three inches and three quarters ; the color
ashy blue above, the under parts
white, top of the head and neck
black. It moves along trunks
and branches with the greatest
facility, and at a little distance
is easily mistaken by the care-
less observer for a little wood-
pecker. The nest is made in
a hole excavated in a decayed
trunk or branch ; eggs five or
six, dull white, spotted with white at the larger end.

The Slender-billed Nuthatch, 5. aculcata, Cass., of the
Pacific coast and eastward, is precisely similar to the pre-
ceding, but has the bill more slender.

The Red-bellied Nuthatch, 5. canadcnsis, Linn., of
North America, is four and a half inches long, the wing
two and two thirds inches ; the color ashy blue above, top
of the head black, under parts brownish rusty. The nest
is made in a low stump ; eggs four, white, rose-tinged,
and sprinkled with reddish dots. Like other species of
its genus, the Red-bellied Nuthatch at night attaches its
feet to the bark, and sleeps with its head downwards.

White-bellied Nuthatch,
C. caroliiteitsis, Gm.

1 96 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Brown-headed Nuthatch, 5. pusilla, Lath., of the
South Atlantic States, is four inches long, the wing two
and a half inches ; the color above ashy blue, top of the
head and upper part of the neck light brown, divided on
the nape by white ; beneath, dingy white.

The California Nuthatch, 5. pygm<za, Vigors, of West-
ern North America, is about four inches long, the wing
two and four tenths inches, and closely resembles the
preceding.

PARID^:, OR TITMOUSE FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds which have the bill short, straight, and con-
ical, the wings short, and tail long.

The Genus Polioptila has the bill depressed at base,
nearly as long as the head, notched at the tip, and with
rictal bristles. The members of this genus are lead-color
above, white beneath.

The Blue-gray Gnat-catcher, P. cczmlea, Sclat, of
North America, is four and three tenths inches long,
the wing less than two and a quarter inches, and is
distinguished by the two outer tail-feathers, which are
entirely white, and a narrow black frontal line which
extends back over the eye.

The Western Gnat-catcher, P. plumbca, Baird, of the
valley of Colorado, has no black on the forehead, but a
stripe over the eye ; and the outer web only of the outer
tail-feather is white.

The Black-tailed Gnat-catcher, P. mclannra, Lawr., of
the Rio Grande region, has the entire top of the head
black, and the edge only of the outer tail-feather white.

The Genus Lophophanes has the crown with a con-
spicuous crest.

The Tufted Titmouse, L. bicolor, Bonap., of North
America east of the Missouri, is six and a quarter inches
long, the wing less than three and a quarter inches ; the
color above ashy black, forehead black, beneath dull
whitish.

INSESSORES : PARID^E. 197

The Black-crested Tit, L. atricristatus, Cass., of the
Rio Grande, is five and a quarter inches long, the
wing three inches ; the color above plumbeous, crest
long, pointed, and black.

The Gray Titmouse, L. inornatus, Cass., of California,
is five inches long, the wing over two and a half inches,
crest elongated ; the color above olivaceous ashy, beneath
whitish.

Wollweber's Titmouse, L. Wollweberi, Bonap., of South-
ern Rocky Mountains, is four and a half inches long, the
wing two and a half inches.

The Genus Parns has the head without a crest, body
and head stout, the crown and throat black.

The Long-tailed Chickadee, P. septcntrionalis, Harris,
from the Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, is five and
a half inches long, and the wing two and seven tenths
inches.

The Black-cap Titmouse, or Chickadee, P. atricapil-
Ins, Linn., of Eastern North America, is five inches
long, the wing two and a half inches, the Fiff . Il6 .

back brownish ashy, under parts whitish,
top of the head and throat black, and
the sides of the head between white.
The nest is generally made in a hole in
a stump ; the eggs rarely exceed eight in
number, the color white slightly dotted
and marked with light reddish. Two Titn

broods are raised in a season. p.

The Western Titmouse, P. occidentalis, Baird, of the
Pacific coast, closely resembles the preceding.

The Mexican Titmouse, P. meridiona/is, Sclat, of East-
ern Mexico, is five inches long, and the wing two and
six tenths inches.

The Carolina Titmouse, P. carolincnsis, And., of the
Southern Atlantic States, is very similar to P. atricapillus,
but is smaller.

198 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Mountain Titmouse, P. montanus, Gambel, of West-
ern North America, is five inches long, the wing two and
six tenths inches ; the head and neck above, a line through
the eye, and the under part of the head and the throat,
glossy black ; the forehead and a line over the eye, and
one below it, white ; the other parts ashy.

The Chestnut-backed Tit, P. mfcsccns, Towns., of West-
ern North America, is four and three quarters inches
long, the wing less than two and a half inches, and is
readily distinguished by the dark brownish-chestnut of
the back and sides.

The Hudsonian Titmouse, P. hitdsonicns, Forster, of
Northeastern North America, is five inches long, the
wing two and four tenths inches ; the color yellowish
olive-brown, under parts white.

The Genus Psaltripams has the bill very small and
short, the outline much curved for its terminal half,
the tail long and slender and much graduated, tarsi
longer than the middle toe, and no black on the crown
or throat.

The Black-cheeked Tit, P. mdanotns, Bonap., of the
Rio Grande region, is four inches long, the wing one inch
and nine tenths, and is distinguished by a black patch on
each cheek.

The Least Tit, P. minimus, Bonap., of the Pacific coast
of the United States, is of the same size as the preceding ;
the color olivaceous cinereous.

The Lead-colored Tit, P. plumbeus, Baird, of the South-
ern Rocky Mountains, is four and one fifth inches long,
the wing less than two and a quarter inches.

The Genus Paroides comprises the Verdin, P.flaviccps,
Baird, of Texas, which is four and a half inches long, the
wing 'less than two and a quarter inches ; and distin-
guished from all the foregoing in the greater length of
the quills ; the color above cinereous, head yellow, under
parts brownish white.

INSESSORES I

199

ALAUDID^E, OR SKYLARK FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds with a short conical bill, the first primary very
short or wanting, tertiaries greatly elongated beyond the
secondaries, tarsi scutellate before and behind, and the
hind claw very long and nearly straight.

The Genus Ercmophila has the first primary wanting,
and the nostrils circular and concealed by a dense tuft of
feathers.

The Skylark or Shore Lark, E. conmta, Boie, of the
plains and prairies of North America and in the Atlantic
States in winter, is seven and three quarters inches long,
the wing four and a half inches ; the color above pinkish
brown, the feathers of the back marked with dusky ; a
band across the crown and running back along the lateral
tufts, a crescentic patch from the bill below the eye and
along the side of the head, and a pectoral crescent, black ;
the frontal band and under parts white ; chin and throat
yellow. It sings sweetly while on the wing, but its song
is short. It rises obliquely from the ground for about
forty yards, be-
gins and ends
its song, then
performs a few
evolutions and
returns to the
ground, where
it also sings, but
less frequently,
and with less
fulness. The
nest is built on
the ground ; the eggs are four or five, grayish, with nu-
merous pale-blue and brown spots.

The Skylark of Europe, E. arvcnsis, is brown above,
whitish beneath, and spotted with deep brown. Next to

Fig. 117.

Skylark, E. cornnta, Boie.

20O VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

the nightingale, this is the sweetest singer in Europe.
It rises vertically, and when rising or descending utters
its varied and powerful song.

FRINGILLID.E, OR FINCH AND SPARROW FAMILY. This
Family comprises birds with a short, robust, conical bill,
nine primaries, tarsi scutellate anteriorly, the two sides
with undivided plates meeting behind, forming a sharp
ridge. This family comprises all the birds known as
Grosbeaks, Finches, Buntings, Crossbills, Sparrows, and
the like. Baird divides the family into four groups.

The first group comprises those which have the bill
variable, very large to quite small, the base of the up-
per mandible with a closely pressed fringe of bristly
feathers concealing the nostrils ; the wings long, pointed,
a half to a third longer than the forked or emarginate
tail ; and the tarsi short.

The Genus Hesperipkona has the bill enormously large.

The Evening Grosbeak, H. vespcrtina, Bonap., of West-
ern North America, is seven and three tenths inches long,
the wing four and three tenths inches, the forward half
of the body yellowish olive, shading into yellow on the
rump and under tail-coverts ; the crown, wings, upper
tail-coverts, and tail, black ; frontal band yellow.

The Genus Pinicola has the bill much smaller than
HcsperipJwna, the culmen much curved, and tail nearly
even.

The Pine Grosbeak, P. canadensis, Cab., of Arctic
America and southward into the United States in winter,
is eight and a half inches long, the wing four and a half
inches ; the general color carmine-red, wings marked with
white, bill and legs black. The female is brownish above,
greenish yellow beneath ; the top of the head, rump, and
upper tail-coverts brownish gamboge-yellow.

The Genus Carpodacus has the bill more or less curved
above, and <he tail moderately forked.

INSESSORES : FRINGILLID^E.

201

Fig. 1 1 8.

Purple Finch,
C. purpureus, Gray.

The Purple Finch, C.purpureus, Gray,
of North America east of the Central
Plains, is six and a quarter inches long,
the wing three and a third inches, the
color crimson ; belly and under tail-
coverts white ; there are two reddish
bands across the wings. The female
is olivaceous brown, white beneath,
the feathers streaked with brown. The
song of the Purple Finch is prolonged
and sweet. The nest is built in a tree
a few feet from the ground ; the eggs
are four, bright emerald-green.

The Western Purple Finch, C. calif oriiicns, Baird, of
the Pacific coast, is rather smaller than the preceding,
and the purple of the head and rump much darker.

Cassin's Purple Finch, C. Cassinii, Baird, of the Rocky
Mountains, is larger than C. purpurcns.

The House Finch, C. frontalis, Gray, of the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific, is five and three quarters inches
long, the wing three and a quarter inches ; the forehead,
superciliary stripe, throat, and upper part of the breast,
crimson ; the remaining upper parts grayish brown, and
the under parts whitish.

The Genus CJnysomitris has the bill nearly straight,
and the tail quite deeply forked ; the general colors yel-
low and black.

The Black-headed Goldfinch, C. magcllanica, Bonap., of
South America and accidental in the United States, is four
and a half inches long, the wing two and three quarters
inches ; the head is black all round.

Yarrell's Goldfinch, C. Yarrelli, Bonap., of California
and Mexico, is four inches long, with the crown black.

The Yellow-Bird or Thistle-Bird, C. tristis, Bonap., of
North America, is five and a quarter inches long, the

2O2 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

wing three inches ; the color gamboge-yellow, crown and
wings black, tail and wings marked with white. The
female is yellowish brown, with no black upon the head.
The nest is very handsome, made of lichens and fastened
to a twig ; eggs four to six, white tinged with bluish, and
spotted with reddish brown at the larger end.

The Arkansas Finch, C. psaltria, Bonap., of the South-
ern Rocky Mountains to the coast of California, is four
and a quarter inches long, the wing two and two fifths
inches, the upper parts olive green, the head, wings, and
tail black ; beneath, bright yellow.

The Black Goldfinch, C. mexicana, Bonap., of Mexico
near the Rio Grande, is over four inches long, the wing
two and a quarter inches.

Lawrence's Goldfinch, C. Lawrencii, Bonap., of Cali-
fornia, is four and seven tenths inches long, the wing
two and three quarters inches ; the crown, sides of the
head anterior to the eye, chin, and throat, black ; sides
of the head and neck, upper part of the neck, back, and
upper tail-coverts, ashy ; under parts greenish yellow.

The Pine Finch, C. pinns, Bonap., of North America,
is four and three quarters inches long, the wing three
inches ; olive brownish above, beneath whitish, every
feather streaked with dusky ; the concealed bases of
tail feathers and quills and their inner edges sulphur-
yellow ; outer edges yellowish green ; two brownish-white
bands upon the wings, and the tail much forked.

The Genus Pyrrhula comprises the Bulfinches of the
Eastern hemisphere, which have the bill very large and
rounded. They are easily tamed, and sing well.

The Genus Curuirostra has the points of the mandibles
greatly curved and overlapping. Crossbills live in flocks ;
and feed mainly upon seeds contained in the cones of
pines and those of other allied trees, which, by the aid
of their peculiar bill, they are able to secure with won-
derful facility.

INSESSORES : FRINGILLID.E.

203

Fig. 119.

;

White-winged Crossbill,
C. leucoptera, Wils.

The Red Crossbill, C. americana, Wils., of North Amer-
ica, is six inches long, the wing over three and a third
inches ; the color dull red, the wings and tail dark
blackish-brown. The female is dull greenish-olive, rump
and crown bright greenish-yellow ; beneath grayish.

The White-winged Crossbill,
C. Icucoptera, Wils., of North
America, is six and a quarter
inches long, the wing three and
a half inches, and is readily dis-
tinguished by the white bands
upon the wings.

The Genus sEgiothus has the
bill short and acutely conical,
wings long, the second quill
somewhat longer than the first
and third, and the tail deeply
forked ; colors reddish.

The Lesser Red Poll, AL. linaria, Cab., of North Amer-
ica, is five and a half inches long, the wing over three
inches ; the color above light yellowish, each feather
streaked with dark brown, the crown crimson, upper
part of the breast and sides of the body tinged with
light crimson ; the most of the remaining under parts
white. Audubon says few birds exhibit a more affec-
tionate disposition than this; and he enjoyed the pleas-
ure of seeing several on a twig feeding each other by
passing a seed from bill to bill, and one individual actu-
ally receiving food from two of his companions at the
same time.

The Mealy Red Poll, &. canescens, Cab., of Greenland,
is six inches long, and is further distinguished from the
preceding by its white rump.

The Genus Leucosticte has the bill obtusely conical,
and a conspicuous ridge on the side of the lower man-
dible.

2O4 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Gray-crowned Finch, L. tephrocotis, Sw., of the
Northern Rocky Mountains, is over seven inches long,
and the wing four and three tenths inches.

The Genus Plectrophanes has the bill always more or
less curved or blunted, the wings one half longer than
the tail, the hind claw much the largest ; colors black
and white.

The Snow-Bunting, P. nivalis, Meyer, of Northern
North America and south into the United States in
winter, is six and three quarters inches long, the wing
over four and one third inches ; the colors in full plumage
black and white ; in winter, white beneath, head and
rump yellowish brown, back brown. Snow-Buntings
move in flocks, and keep mainly in open fields.

The Lapland Longspur, P. lapponicns, Selby, of North-
ern North America, is six and a quarter inches long, the
wing nearly four inches ; the head all round and extend-
ing to the breast black ; the sides of the lower part of
the neck and under parts white ; a chestnut collar on the
back of the neck ; and the remaining upper parts brown-
ish yellow streaked with brown.

Smith's Bunting, P. pictus, Sw., of Illinois in winter
and northward in summer, is five and a half inches long,
the wing three and a half inches, and is distinguished
from all the preceding by the flesh-colored legs.

The Chestnut-collared Bunting, P. ornatus, Towns., of
the Upper Missouri, is five and a quarter inches long, the
wing three and one fifth inches, and is distinguished by a
chestnut band on the neck.

The Black-shouldered Longspur, P. melanomas, Baird,
of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, closely re-
sembles the preceding.

Maccown's Longspur, P. Maccownii, Lawr., of the east-
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, is five and a half
inches long, the wing over three and a half inches, and
is distinguished by its large and stout bill.

INSESSORES I FRINGILLID^:.

The second group embraces all the plain sparrow-like
birds marked with longitudinal stripes. The bill is small
and conical, tarsi lengthened, and the lateral claws never
reaching beyond the base of the middle claw.

The Genus Centronix has the bill elongated, the wings
reaching beyond the middle of the tail, tarsi elongated,
the hind toe large and curved.

Baird's Bunting, C. Bairdii, Baird, of the Yellowstone
region, is four and three quarters inches long, the wing
two and four fifths inches.

The Genus Passcrculus has the tarsus about equal to
the middle toe, the lateral toes about equal, the wing
reaching to the middle of the tail, the first primary long-
est, the tertiaries equal to the primaries ; the tail is emar-
ginate and slightly rounded, and the feathers acute.

The Savannah Sparrow, P. savanna, Bonap., of North
America east of the Missouri, is five and a half inches
long, the wing two and seven tenths inches ; the upper
parts streaked with dark brown, the crown with a median
stripe of yellowish gray ; a superciliary stripe, eyelids,
and edge of elbow, yellow ; the fore part of the breast
streaked, and the rest of the under parts mainly white.
It builds its nest on the ground at the foot of a tuft of
grass or low bush ; eggs four to six, pale bluish, softly
mottled with purplish brown.

The Nootka Sparrow, P. sandwich en sis, Baird, of West-
ern North America, closely resembles the preceding.

The Spotted Sparrow, P. antJiinus, Bonap., of the coast
of California, is similar to P. savanna, but is only five
inches long.

The Lark Sparrow, P. alandinus, Bonap., of California
to Mexico, differs from P. savanna in being rather smaller,
and in paler colors.

The Beaked Sparrow, P. restrains, Baird, of the coast
of California, is distinguished from all the preceding of
its genus by its longer bill.

206 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Genus Pocccctcs has the bill rather large, wings
long and pointed, the second and third quills longest,
tail short, forked, stiff, and its feathers acute.

The Grass Finch, or Bay-winged Bunting, P. grami-
neus, Baird, of the United States from the Atlantic to the
Pacific is six and a quarter inches long, the wing three
and one tenth inches ; above yellowish brown, the feath-
ers streaked abruptly with dark brown ; beneath yellowish
white, the breast, sides of neck, and body streaked with
brown, and the wings with the shoulder light chestnut-
brown. The Bay-winged Bunting sings sweetly, and, at
times, for a half-hour without changing its place. Its
nest is built in the grass, and partly sunk in the ground ;
the eggs four to six, bluish white, with undefined blotches
of pale reddish-brown.

The Genus Coturniculus has the bill very large and
stout, tarsus longer than the middle toe, wings short and
rounded, tail short, narrow, graduated, but slightly emar-
ginate, the feathers lanceolate and acute, but not stiffened.

The Yellow-winged Sparrow, C. passerimts, Bonap., of
North America east of the Central Plains, is about five
inches long, the wing two and two fifths inches ; the feath-
ers of the upper parts brownish rufous, margined narrowly
with ash ; the crown blackish with a central and super-
ciliary stripe of yellowish tinged with brown, the bend of
the wing bright yellow, the quill and tail-feathers edged
with whitish. The lower parts are brownish yellow,
nearly white on the middle of the belly ; the feathers of
the upper part of the breast and sides of the body with
darker centres. Its nest is upon the ground, made of
grass, and lined with fibrous roots and hair ; eggs dingy
white sprinkled with brown spots.

Henslow's Bunting, C. Hcnsloivi, Bonap., of the Eastern
United States as far north as Washington, and westward,
is five and a quarter inches long, the wing less than two

INSESSORES ! FRINGILLID^:. 2O/

and a quarter inches ; the upper parts yellowish brown,
the crown with a broad black spotted stripe on each side,
these spots continuing down to the back ; two black
maxillary stripes on each side of the head, and an obscure
crescent of the same color behind the auriculars ; under
parts light brownish-yellow, the upper breast and sides
streaked with black ; edge of the wing yellow, wings and
tail strongly tinged with chestnut.

Leconte's Bunting, C. Lecontii, Bonap., of the Yellow-
stone, is about four and one third inches long, the wing
over two inches.

The Genus Ammodromus has the bill very long, slen-
der, attenuated, considerably curved towards the tip
above ; the wings short and rounded, reaching only to
the base of the tail ; the latter is short and graduated,
each feather stiffened, lanceolate, and acute ; the legs
and toes very long, reaching beyond the tip of the tail.

The Sharp-tailed Finch, A. caudacutus, Sw., of the
United States on the Atlantic coast, is five inches long,
the wing about two and three tenths inches ; the upper
parts brownish olivaceous, the head with black streaks
upon the sides, and a central stripe of ashy ; a supercili-
ary and maxillary stripe and a band across the breast
buff-yellow ; a brown stripe on the side of the throat,
the upper part of the breast and sides of the body streaked
with black. The rest of the under parts are white, and
the edge of the wing yellowish white. The nest is on
the ground, near high-water-mark ; eggs four to six, dull
white dotted with light brown.

The Seaside Finch, A. maritimus, Sw., of the United
States on the Atlantic coast, is about six inches long, the
wing two and a half inches ; olivaceous brown above, be-
neath white, the breast and sides yellowish brown ; the
sides of the head and body, a medial line on the head, and
indistinct streaks on the breast, ashy brown ; the super-

208 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

ciliary stripe is bright yellow anterior to the eye, the .re-
mainder plumbeous ; the edge of the wing yellow, and the
bill blue. This bird may be seen, at any hour of the day
during spring and early summer, upon the tops of tall
plants that grow by the margin of tide-water, there ut-
tering the few notes that compose its song. The nest is
made of coarse grass without and fine within ; eggs four
to six, grayish white freckled with brown.

Samuel's Finch, A. Samuclis, Baird, of California, is
five inches long, the wing less than two and a quarter
inches.

The Genus Chondcstcs comprises the Lark Finch, C.
grammaca, Bonap., from the Mississippi Valley to the
Pacific coast. It is six inches long, the wing about
three and one third inches ; the upper parts grayish
brown, the hood chestnut with a median and superciliary
stripe of dingy white ; the under parts white ; a round
spot on the breast, a maxillary stripe, and a short line
from the bill to the eye, black. The tail is dark brown,
broadly tipped with white.

The Genus Zonotrichia has the bill conical and slightly
notched, wings not reaching to the middle of the moder-
ately-rounded tail, the second and third quills longest,
tarsus longer than the middle toe, lateral toes about equal,
the hind toe longer than the lateral ones, the claws of
the latter just reaching to the base of the middle one.

The White-crowned Sparrow, Z. Icucophrys, Sw., of the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains, is over seven
inches long, the wing three and a quarter inches ; the
head above, the upper half of the loral region, and a line
through and behind the eye, black ; a longitudinal patch
upon the crown, and a line from above the anterior cor-
ner of the eye, the two coming together On the occiput,
white. Its song consists of six or seven notes, rather
plaintive, the first of which is loud, clear, and sweet, the

INSESSORES : FRINGILLID^:. 2OQ

second broader but less firm, and the rest gradually di-
minishing in fulness and power. This song is repeated
at short intervals throughout the day. The nest is made
upon the ground, beautifully constructed, and found with
difficulty ; the eggs five, light sea-green, mottled towards
the larger end with brownish spots and blotches, and a
few spots of lighter tint are dispersed over the whole.

Gambel's Finch, Z. Gambcllii, from the Rocky Moun-
tains to the Pacific coast, is almost precisely like the pre-
ceding, only smaller.

The Golden-crowned Sparrow, Z. coronata, Baird, of
the Pacific coast, is seven inches long, the wing about
three and one third inches ; the top of the head black ;
median stripe yellow anteriorly, and ashy posteriorly ;
the sides and under parts of the head and neck, and upper
part of the breast, ash-color, passing into whitish beneath.

Harris's Finch, Z. querula, Gamb., of the Missouri re-
gion, is seven inches long, the wing less than three and
a half inches, and distinguished by having the head all
round, the neck, and the throat, black.

The White-throated Sparrow, Z. albicollis, Bonap., of
the United States east of the Missouri, is seven inches
long, the wing over three inches ; the crown with two
black stripes separated by one of white, a broad super-
ciliary stripe yellow to the middle of the eye and white
behind it, a broad black streak from behind the eye, the
chin white, upper part of the breast dark ash, edge of
wing and axillaries yellow, the back rufous brown streaked
with dark brown, the belly and two bands across the wing
coverts white.

The Genus Junco has the bill small and conical, the
wings reaching over the basal fourth of the exposed por-
tion of the tail, the tarsus longer than the middle toe, the
lateral toes slightly unequal, the outer reaching to the
base of the middle claw, and the tail slightly emarginate.

2io VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Mexican Junco, J. clncrcus, Cab., of Mexico, is six
and two fifths inches long, the wing over three inches.

The Oregon Snow-Bird, J. orcgonus, Sclat., of the Pa-
cific coast to the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, is
six and a half inches long, wing three inches, the head
and neck all round sooty black, the interscapular region
and the wings dark rufous brown, a lighter tint of the
same on the breast and below, the rump brownish ash,
and the outer two tail-feathers white.

The Gray-headed Snow-Bird, J. canlccps, Baird, of the
Rocky Mountains, is six inches long, the wing about three
and a quarter inches.

The Black Snow-Bird, J, hy emails, Sclat., of the United
States east of the Missouri, is six and a quarter inches
long ; grayish or dark ashy-black, deepest before ; the
middle of the breast and belly, the under tail-coverts,
and the first and second external tail-feathers white, and
the third tail-feather white margined with black. These
birds appear in flocks in winter, and are very tame.

The Genus Poospiza is represented by only two species
in the United States.

The Black-throated Sparrow, P. bilineata, Sclat., of the
Rio Grande, is nearly five inches long, the wing two and
three quarters inches ; the color above ashy gray, the
under parts and superciliary stripe white, the chin and
throat black.

Bell's Finch, P. Belli, Sclat, of Southern California,
is six and a quarter inches long, the wing nearly three
inches ; the upper parts bluish ash, under parts pure
white.

The Genus Spizclla is distinguished from Zonotrichia
by the smaller size, and a longer and forked tail.

The Tree Sparrow, 5. monticola, Baird, of North Amer-
ica, is six and a quarter inches long, the wing three inches ;
the feathers of the back dark brown centrally, then rufous,

INSESSORES: FRINGILLID^E. 211

and edged with pale fulvous ; the hood, and a line from
behind the eye, chestnut. The under parts are whitish,
with a blotch of brownish on the breast.

The Field Sparrow, >S. pusilla, Bonap., of North Amer-
ica east of the Missouri, is five and three quarters inches
long, the wing two and one third inches ; the bill red, the
crown continuous rufous-red, the back similar, streaked
with blackish ; the under parts white, tinged before with
yellowish. This sparrow builds upon the ground at the
foot of a small bush, or on branches close to the ground ;
eggs four to six, light ferruginous.

The Chipping Sparrow, 6". socialis, Bonap., of North
America, is five and three quarters inches long, the wing
nearly three inches ; the bill black, crown continuous
chestnut, the forehead black, separated in the middle by
white, superciliary stripe white, a black stripe through the
eye ; the rump, sides of the head and neck, and back of
the latter, ashy ; and the interscapular space with black
streaks margined with pale rufous. The under parts
whitish, and two narrow white bands across the wing-
coverts. This is one of the most common birds. Its
song is six or seven notes, uttered with rapidity. Its
nest is slender, formed of grasses, and lined with hair,
and placed upon an apple-tree or some low bush, but
never on the ground. The eggs are four or five, greenish
blue marked with dark brown spots.

The Clay-colored Bunting, S. pallida, Bonap., of the
Upper Missouri, is four and three quarters inches long,
the wing over two and a half inches ; brownish yellow
above, the feathers of the crown and back conspicuously
streaked with blackish ; under parts whitish.

Brewer's Sparrow, 5. Brewcri, Cass., of the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific coast, is five inches long, the
wing two and a half inches, and closely resembles the
preceding.

212 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Black-chinned Sparrow, 6". atrigularis, Baird, of
Mexico near the Rio Grande, is five and a half inches
long, the wing two and a half inches.

The Genus Mclospiza has the bill conical, wings quite
short and rounded, tail graduated and the feathers oval at
the tips, tertiaries longer than the secondaries, the fourth
quill longest. The crown and back are similar in color
and streaked, the lower parts thickly streaked, and the
tail unspotted.

rig. 120. The Song-Sparrow, M. melo-

dia, Baird, of the United States
east of the Rocky Mountains,
is six and a half inches long,
the wing over two and a half
inches ; the upper parts rufous
brown streaked with dark
brown and ashy gray. The

Song-Sparrow, M. Mia, Baird.

and superciliary stripe of dull gray. The interscapular
region has the feathers dull brown in the centre, then
rufous, then grayish on the margin. There is a light
maxillary stripe bordered above and below by one of
dark rufous-brown, with a similar one from behind the
eye. The under parts are white, the breast and sides of
the body streaked with dark rufous, and on the middle
of the breast this color is concentrated into a spot. This
species builds both on the ground and on trees. The
nest is made of fine grass, lined with hair ; eggs three to
seven, light greenish-white, speckled with dark umber,
the specks larger towards the larger end.

Heermann's Song-Sparrow, M. Hecrmanni, Baird, and
Gould's Song- Sparrow, M. Gouldii, Baird, inhabit Cali-
fornia.

The Rusty Song-Sparrow, M. mfina, Baird, of the Pa-
cific coast, is six and three quarter inches long, the wing

INSESSORES: FRINGILLID.E. 213

two and seven tenths inches, light rufous-brown above,
beneath whitish.

The Mountain Song-Sparrow, M.fallax, Baird, of the
Rocky Mountains, is very similar to M. melodia, but with
smaller bill and longer wings and tail.

Lincoln's Finch, M. Lincolnii, Baird, of North America,
is five and six tenths inches long, the wing two and six
tenths inches ; crown chestnut, with a median and super-
ciliary ashy stripe ; back streaked with black ; beneath,
white ; a stripe behind the ear-coverts, band across the
breast, and under tail-coverts, brownish yellow.

The Swamp Sparrow, M. palustris, Baird, of the United
States east of the Missouri, is five and three quarters inches
long, the wing two and two fifths inches ; the middle of
the crown chestnut, forehead black, superciliary streak,
sides of the head, and back, ash, the latter broadly
streaked with black ; under parts whitish tinged with
ashy across the breast. The nest is built at the foot of
a tuft of grass ; eggs four or five, dull white, speckled
with reddish.

The Genus Peuccea has the upper mandible curved,
very short and much rounded wings, tail long and much
graduated, and the toes short.

Bachman's Finch, P. czstivalis, Cab., of Georgia, is six
and a quarter inches long, the wing about two and a third
inches, the feathers above dark brownish-red margined
with bluish ash, under parts pale brownish-yellow, and
edge of wing yellow.

Cassin's Finch, P. Cassinii, Baird, of Texas, is similar
to the last, but paler.

The Brown-headed Finch, P. ruficcps, Baird, of Cali-
fornia, is five and a half inches long, the wing over two
and a third inches, ashy brown above, the crown and
nape chestnut, superciliary stripe ashy ; under parts pale
yellowish-brown, chin with a line of black on each side.

214 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Genus Embernagra comprises the Texas Finch,
E. mfivirgata, Lawr.

The third group comprises those which have the legs,
toes, and claws very stout, and the lateral claws reaching
nearly to the end of the middle one. They are sparrow-
like species with triangular spots beneath.

The Genus Passerella has the body stout ; wings long
and pointed, reaching to the middle of the nearly even tail.

The Fox-colored Sparrow, P. iliaca, Sw., of the United
States east of the Mississippi, is seven and a half inches
long, the wing three and a half inches ; the back dull
ash, each feather with a blotch of brownish red ; the top
of the head and neck similar, but with smaller and less
distinct blotches ; the exposed surfaces of the wings,
upper tail-coverts, and tail, bright rufous ; the under
parts white ; the upper parts of the breast, sides of the
body, and throat, with triangular spots of rufous ; and on
the middle of the breast a few smaller ones of blackish.
This Sparrow lingers in clumps of bushes near the water,
and patches of briers along the fences. Its flight is low,
rapid, undulatory, and its notes sweet. The nest is made
upon the ground in a tuft of grass, or under a low bush ;
eggs four or five, rather sharp at the smaller end, dull
greenish sprinkled with blotches of brown.

P. obscura, Verrill, of Anticosti, is somewhat smaller
than the preceding species.

Townsend's Sparrow, P. Toivnscndii, Nutt., of the Pa-
cific coast of North America, is about seven inches long,
the wing about three inches ; the color above uniform
dark olive-brown, with a tinge of rufous ; the under parts
are white, thickly covered with triangular blotches of the
same color as the back.

The Slate-colored Sparrow, P. scJiistacca, Baird, of West-
ern North America, is six and four fifths inches long,
the wing over three inches ; the color above uniform

INSESSORES I FRINGILLID^E.

215

slate-gray ; the upper surfaces of wings, tail, and coverts,
dark brownish-rufous ; under parts white, with arrow-
shaped spots of slate-gray.

The fourth group comprises those which are bright-
colored, usually without streaks, and with a large bill.

The Genus Calamospiza comprises the Lark Bunting or
White-winged Blackbird, C. bicolor, Bonap., of the Central
Plains, which is six and a half inches long, the wing three
and a half inches.

The Genus Euspiza comprises the Black-throated Bunt-
ing, E. amcricana, Bonap., of the United States east of the
Central Plains, which is six and seven tenths inches long,
the wing three and a half inches ; the sides of the head
and neck and back of the neck, ash ; crown yellowish
green, streaked with dusky ; superciliary stripe, middle
of the breast, and edge of the wing, yellow ; under parts
white, with a black patch upon the throat.

The Genus Guiraca has the bill very large.

The Rose-breasted Grosbeak, G. ludoviciana, Sw., of
North America east of the Missouri, Fig. 121.

is eight and a half inches long, the
wing over four inches ; the upper
parts, head, and neck all round, glos-
sy black ; a broad crescent across
the breast, axillaries, and under
wing-coverts, carmine. The rest of
the under parts, the rump, and up-
per tail-coverts, middle wing-coverts,
spots on tertiaries and wing-coverts
and the basal half of primaries and
secondaries, and a large patch on
the inner web of the outer three
tail-feathers, pure white. The fe-
male is without black or carmine,
or the white of the quills, tail, and rump. The song
of this Grosbeak is loud, clear, and mellow.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak,
G. ludoviciana, Sw.

2i6 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Black-headed Grosbeak, G. melanocepJiala, Sw., of
Western North America, is eight inches long, the wing
four and a quarter inches.

The Blue Grosbeak, G. ccernlca, Sw., of the Southern
United States, is seven and a quarter inches long, the
wing three and a half inches, and at once distinguished
by its brilliant blue color.

The Genus Cyanospiza has the upper outline of the
bill considerably curved, wings long and pointed, tail
rather narrow and nearly even, and the tarsus about
equal to the middle toe. The species are all small and
of very showy plumage.

The Blue Bunting, C. pardlina, Baird, of the Rio
Grande region, is five inches long, the wing two and
a half inches, general color dark blue.

The Varied Bunting, C. vcrsicolor, Baird, of Northeast-
ern Mexico, is five and a half inches long, the wing two
and three quarters inches ; the colors reddish, blue, and
black.

The Painted Bunting, or Nonpareil, C. ciris, Baird, of
the Southern States, is five and a half inches long, the
wing two and seven tenths inches ; the head and neck
ultramarine blue ; a stripe from the chin to the breast, the
under parts generally, and the rump, vermilion. The
edges of the chin, loral region, greater wing-coverts, and
interscapular region are green ; and the tail, lower wing-
coverts, and outer webs of quills, purplish blue. The
female is dark green above, yellow below.

The Lazuli Finch, C. amccna, Baird, of the Central
Plains to the Pacific, is five and a half inches long, the
wing nearly four inches ; the upper parts greenish blue,
the upper part of the breast pale brownish-chestnut, the
remaining under parts, except the blue throat, white.

The Indigo Bird, C. cyanca, Baird, of the United States
east of the Missouri, is five and three quarters inches long,

INSESSORES : FRINGILLID.E. 2 I/

the wing three inches ; the color bright ultramarine blue.
The female is brown above, whitish beneath. This bird
prefers the skirts of woodlands and detached thickets.
Its song consists of eight or ten notes, and is generally
uttered from the top of a low tree. It builds its nest of
grass on the stalks of rank grass or other plants ; eggs
four to six, blue, with a spot or two of purple at the
larger end.

The Genus Spcrmophila comprises the Little Seed-
eater, 5. moreletii, Puch., of Texas and southward.

The Genus PyrrJiuloxia has the bill very short, broad,
and greatly curved.

The Texas Cardinal, P. sinuata, Bonap., of the Rio
Grande region, is eight and a half inches long, the wing
three and three quarters inches ; the head with a long
pointed crest ; the upper parts generally pale ashy-brown ;
crest, wing, and tail, dark crimson ; throat, breast, median
line below, under tail-coverts, the edge and inner coverts
of the wings, bright carmine ; the bill yellowish.

The Genus Cardinalis has the bill enormously devel-
oped, and the head crested.

The Red Bird or Cardinal, C. virginianns, Bonap., of
the more southern parts of the United States, is eight
and a half inches long, the wing three and three quarters
inches, and the general color vermilion ; a band around
the base of the bill and upper part of the throat black.
The female with duller red, and less in extent.

The Genus Pipilo has the bill rather stout, feet large,
the claws stout and curved, tail considerably longer than
the wings ; the upper parts generally black or brown,
under parts white or brown.

The Ground-Robin, Towhee, or Chewink, P. erythro-

thalmus, Vieill., of the United States east of the Missouri,

is eight and three quarters inches long, the wing three

and three quarters inches ; the upper parts generally,

10

218 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

head and neck all round, and the upper part of the breast,
Fig. 122. glossy black abruptly

defined against the
pure white below ;
the sides light chest-
nut, wings and tail
black marked with
white, and the iris

Chewink, P. erythrothalmus, Vieill. red. The female has

the black replaced with brown. This is one of the most
common birds, and is usually seen upon the ground
among low bushes. Every few moments its favorite
chewink comes to our ears. Sometimes it ascends to the
top of a small tree, and sings with a mellow sweetness
which cannot fail to interest any one who hears it. The
nest is made upon the ground, in a little hole scraped
out for the purpose ; eggs four to six, pale flesh-color,
with dark spots. Two or three broods are raised in a
season.

The Oregon Ground Robin, P. oregonns, Bell ; the
Arctic Towhee, P. arcticus, Sw., of the Central Plains ;
the Spurred Towhee, P. mcgalonyx, Baird, of California
to the Rio Grande, with the claws enormously devel-
oped ; Abert's Towhee, P. Abcrtii, Baird, of the South-
ern Rocky Mountains ; the Brown Towhee, P. fnscus,
Sw., of the coast region of California ; the Canon Finch,
P. mcsolaicns, Baird, of the Rio Grande and westward,
are additional species.

Blanding's Finch, P. chlorurus, Baird, of the Rio Grande
and Rocky Mountains, is seven inches long, the wing over
three inches, the color above dull grayish olive-green, the
crown chestnut, the upper part of the breast and sides
of the body bluish ash, the exterior of the wings and tail
bright olive-green, the edge and under surface of the
former bright yellow.

INSESSORES :

219

ICTERID.E, OR BLACKBIRD FAMILY. --This Family com-
prises birds with a long bill, nine primaries, tail rather
long and rounded, the legs stout, the basal joint of the
middle toe free on the inner side, and united half-way on
the outer.

The Genus Ploccus comprises the Weavers of Africa
and India, celebrated for their curious nests woven of
grass. Some species, like the Republican, Loxia socia,
Lath., unite by hundreds, and construct a roof, beneath
which they build their nests, each being separate and
entered from below. The nest of others is a suspended
sphere, from which, in some cases, there hangs down a
long tube loosely woven of grass.

The Genus Dolichonyx has the middle toe very long,
and the tail feathers with rigid acuminate points.

The Bobolink, Reed-bird, or Rice-bird, D. oryzivorus,
Sw., of North America east of the Central Plains, is seven
and seven tenths inches Fig. 123.

long, the wing less than
four inches ; the general
color black, beautifully
marked with cream-color
and white. The female
is yellowish beneath, the
feathers above dark brown
edged with brownish yel-
low. Late in the sum-
mer the male assumes the
colors of the female. Dur- Bobolink, D. oryzivo, s w .

ing summer this beautiful bird is seen in every meadow,
and its jingling song is heard throughout a great part of
the day. This is frequently uttered while on the wing.
The nest is built on the ground, and composed of grass ;
eggs four to six, white tinged with dull blue, and spotted
with blackish. Late in the summer, these birds are seen

22O VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

in immense flocks around grain-fields. At length they
move southward, lingering by the margins of creeks and
rivers, where the tops of the reeds are bent with the ripe
seeds. Here the Reed-birds become extremely fat, and
thousands are shot by the hunters, and sold in the mar-
kets.

The Genus Molothms is represented in North America
by the Cow-bird, M. pecoris, Sw., which is eight inches
long, the wing less than four and a half inches ; the
head, neck, and anterior half of the breast light choco-
late-brown ; the rest of the body lustrous black. The
female is light olivaceous-brown. In spring and summer
this bird lingers around the cattle in the pastures. Like
the European Cuckoo it makes no nest ; but stealthily
lays its eggs, only one in a place, in the nests of other
birds ; especially in those of the Maryland Yellow-throat,
several Flycatchers, the Blue-bird, Chipping Sparrow, and
Golden-crowned Thrush. The egg is pale grayish-blue,
sprinkled with umber-brown dots and short streaks ; and
it is a remarkable fact, that it hatches before the eggs
of the bird in whose nest it is laid. No sooner has the
young Cow-bird hatched, than the foster-parents fly off
to obtain food for it, and hence their own eggs perish,
and are at length thrown from the nest. The young bird
is cared for with all tenderness, and fed even long after it
has begun to fly about, and after it has become larger
than the foster-parents themselves.

The Genus Agclains has the first quill shorter than the
second and third, and the outer claw scarcely reaching to
the base of the middle one.

The Red-winged Blackbird, A. phceniccus, Vieill., of
North America, is nine and a half inches long, the wing
five inches, the general color lustrous black, the shoulders
and lesser wing-coverts bright crimson or vermilion. The
female is brown above, the feathers edged or streaked

INSESSORES: ICTERIDyE. 221

with rufous brown or yellowish, under parts white streaked
with brown. The nest is made on low bushes, frequently
growing in or hanging over the water, and is composed
of coarse grasses and leaves without, and fine materials
within ; eggs four to six, light blue, sparsely spotted
with dusky.

The Red-shouldered Blackbird, A. gubcmator, Bonap.,
of the Pacific coast, is nine inches long, the wing five
inches, the color lustrous black, the shoulders and lesser
coverts rich crimson, the middle coverts brownish yellow
at the base, but the exposed portion black. The female
is dusky varied with paler.

The Red and White-shouldered Blackbird, A. tricolor,
Bonap., of California, is over nine inches long, the wing
less than five inches ; the color lustrous black, the shoul-
ders and lesser wing-coverts brownish red, the median
coverts white with sometimes a tinge of brown. The
female is dark brown marked with grayish ash.

The Genus XantJioccphalus has the bill nearly straight,
wings long, first quill longest, claws very long and much
curved, and the tail narrow and nearly even.

The Yellow-headed Blackbird, X. icterocephalus, Baird,
of North America, is ten inches long, the wing over five
and a half inches ; the general color black ; the head and
neck all round, and fore part of the breast, yellow, and
there is a white patch at the base of the wing. The fe-
male is smaller and browner.

The Genus Tntpialis has the feathers of the crown
with the shafts prolonged into stiffened bristles. It is
represented by the Red-breasted Lark, T. militaris,
Bonap., of South America and perhaps California, which
is nine and a half inches long, the wing nearly five inches.

The Genus Stimiclla has the bill slender, elongated,
the feathers of the head stiffened and bristly, the hind
claw nearly twice as long as the middle one.

222

VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

The Meadow Lark, 5. magna, Sw., of North America
east of the Central Plains, is over ten and a half inches
long, the wing five inches ; the upper parts are brown mark-
Fig. 124. ed with brown-

^^MI^B.

ish white, and the
exposed portions
of the wings and
tail with trans-
verse dark brown
bars ; the under
parts yellow, with
a black pectoral

Meadow-Lark, 6". magna, Sw. CTCSCent. \Vhen

this bird first rises from the ground, it flutters like
a young bird, then proceeds generally in a straight
course, now checking its speed, now resuming it, as
if undecided whether to move fast or slow. When
pursued by the hunter, it moves more swiftly, alter-
nately sailing and beating with its wings till it is beyond
the reach of harm. The nest is built at the foot of a
tuft of grass in a cavity scooped out of the ground. It
is covered over, except an entrance just large enough to
admit one bird at a time ; eggs four or five, pure white,
sprinkled and blotched with reddish brown. Both birds
engage in the work of incubation.

The Western Lark, 5. ncglccta, And., of Western North
America, is ten inches long, and the wing five and a quar-
ter inches, and very closely resembles the preceding.

The Genus Icterus has the bill slender, very acute, and
as long as the head and a little decurved ; the claws
short and much curved ; prevailing colors yellow, orange,
and black.

The Troupial, /. vulgaris, Daudin, of South America
and the West Indies, and accidental in the United States,
is ten inches long, and the wing four and a half inches ;

INSESSORES : ICTERID/E. 223

the head and upper neck all round, and beneath from the
tail to the upper part of the breast, the interscapular re-
gion, wings, and tail, black ; the remaining under parts,
a collar on the hind part of the neck, rump, and upper
tail-coverts, yellowish orange ; a band upon the wings
and edges of the secondaries, white.

Audubon's Oriole, /. Audubonii, Giraud, of the Rio
Grande region ; Scott's Oriole, /. parisorinn, Bonap., of
Texas ; Wagler's Oriole, /. IVagleri, Sclat., of the Rio
Grande region and Mexico ; and the Hooded Oriole,
/. cncnllatits, Sw., of the Lower Rio Grande, are addi-
tional species of Icterus.

The Orchard Oriole, /. spnrins, Bonap., of North Amer-
ica east of the Rocky Mountains, is seven and a quarter
inches long, the wing three and a quarter inches ; the
head and neck all round, wings, interscapular region, and
tail, black ; under parts, lower part of the back, lesser
upper wing-coverts, and the lower ones, brownish chest-
nut ; a narrow line across the wing and the outer edges
of the quills, white. The female is olivaceous above,
greenish yellow beneath, and there are two white bands
upon the wings. The nest, generally built in orchards
or upon willows, is made of long grasses curiously inter-
woven and fastened to the smaller twigs ; eggs four to
six, bluish white sprinkled with dark brown.

The Baltimore Oriole, Golden Robin, or Hangnest,
/. baltimorc, Baud., of North America east of the High
Central Plains, is seven and a half inches long, and the
wing three and three quarters inches ; the color is black,
with the rump, upper tail-coverts, lesser wing-coverts, the
terminal portion of all but two tail-feathers, and the under
parts, orange red ; the edges of quills, and a band across
the tips of the greater coverts, white. The female is
much duller, the black of the head and back replaced by
brownish yellow. This well-known and beautiful bird

224 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

constructs its curious nest on the outer drooping twigs
of elms and of other trees. The song consists of few
notes, but these are loud, full, and mellow.

Bullock's Oriole, /. Bullockii, Bonap., of Western North
America, is seven and a half inches long, and the wing
three and eight tenths inches. The color is black, with
the under parts, the sides of head and neck, forehead and
line over the eye, rump and upper tail-coverts, and tail
except two central feathers, yellow orange ; the outer
edges of the quills and a band across the wing, white.

The Genus Scolecophagus has the bill shorter than the
head, tail even or slightly rounded.

The Rusty Blackbird, S.fernigineus, Sw., of North Amer-
ica east of the Missouri, is nine and a half inches, and the
wing four and three quarters inches ; the general color
black, with purple reflections. The female is dull brown.

Brewer's Blackbird, S. cyanoccphalus, Cab., of Western
North America, is ten inches long, the wing about five
and a third inches.

The Genus Quiscalus has the bill as long as the head,
the tail long, graduated ; colors lustrous black.

The Great-tailed Grakle, Q. macrourus, Sw., of the
Lower Rio Grande, is eighteen inches long, and the wing
seven and a half inches.

The Boat-tailed Grakle or Jackdaw, Q. major, Vieill.,
of the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States, is fifteen inches
long, and the wing seven inches ; the general color lus-
trous black, head and forward parts glossed with purple.

The Crow Blackbird, Q. versicolor, Vieill., of North
America east of the Central Plains, is thirteen inches
long, the wing six inches ; head and neck all round
steel-blue, and the rest of the body black, with varied
metallic reflections. These beautiful birds are seen in
large numbers as soon as the farmers plough their fields,
which they visit to search for grubs and worms which the

INSESSORES : CORVID.E. 225

plough uncovers. They also visit newly-sown grain-fields
to pick up the exposed kernels, and in the autumn large
flocks commit depredations upon the cornfields.

The Florida Blackbird, Q. baritus, Vieill., of the West
Indies and Florida coast, is over ten and a half inches
long, and the wing five inches.

STURNID.E, OR STARLING FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds which are nearly related to the preceding
one, but which have a rudimentary outer primary, thus
making the primaries ten instead of nine, as in Icteridse.

The Genus Sturmts comprises the Common Starling,
6". vulgaris, Linn., of Europe, which is about the size of a
thrush, black with violet and green reflections, and spot-
ted with white or fawn-color. It moves in large flocks,
is easily tamed, and may be taught to sing, and even to
speak.

CORVID^E, OR CROW FAMILY. This Family comprises
the Crows and their allies.

The Genus Connis has the bill thick, culmen much
curved, bristly feathers at the base of the bill half as long
as the culmen, and the color throughout black.

The American Raven, C. carnivorus, Bartram, of North
America, but rare east of the Mississippi, is twenty-four
inches long, and the wing seventeen inches. It makes its
nest on high and rugged cliffs. The eggs are four to six,
two inches long, and of a light greenish-blue, and covered
with blotches of light purple and yellowish brown.

The Colorado Raven, C. cacalotl, Wagler, of California,
is twenty-five inches long, and the wing eighteen inches ;
the color glossy black.

The White-necked Crow, C. cryptolaicns, Couch, of the
Rio Grande region, is twenty-one inches long, and the
wing fourteen inches. The color is glossy black, with
the feathers of the neck and breast snow-white at the
base.

226 VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

The Common Crow, C. americanus, Aud., of North
America, is about twenty inches long, and the wing about
thirteen inches. Its stately gait when moving upon the
ground, its manner of flight, its shyness and cunning, and
its propensity to scratch up and pull up the corn of the
farmer, are all well known ; but the great benefit which
the crow confers upon the farmer, by destroying an almost
infinite number of grubs destructive to the crops, is not
so well understood.

The Fish Crow, C. ossifragus, Wils., of the South At-
lantic coast, is fifteen and a half inches long, and the
wing ten and a half inches. This species feeds upon
small fishes, which it secures with its claws as it passes
over the water.

The Western Fish Crow, C. caurinus, Baird, of North-
western North America, is sixteen and a half inches long,
and the wing eleven inches.

The Rook, C.frugilegus, Linn., of Europe, is nineteen
inches long, black, and glossed with purple. It usually
builds near human dwellings, and sometimes in large
cities.

The Genus Pidcorvus is represented by Clark's Crow,
P. columbianus, Bonap., of Western North America,
which is twelve inches long, and the wing seven inches ;
the general color bluish ash, the secondaries and tertials
broadly tipped with white, and the tail mainly white.

The Genus Gymnokitta has the nostrils naked, and the
tail short and even.

Maximilian's Jay, G. cyanocephala, Pr. Max., of Western
North America, is ten inches long, and the wing five and
nine tenths inches ; the general color dull blue.

The Genus Pica has the bill much curved, tail very
long and graduated.

The Magpie, P. hudsonica, Bonap., of North America,
is nineteen inches long, the wing eight and a half inches,

INSESSORES I CORVID.E.

227

Fig. 125.

and the tail eleven inches ; the general color black ; the
belly, scapulars, and inner webs of primaries white, and
the neck spotted
with white. The
European Magpie
is closely related to
the American spe-
cies, but its voice
and habits are said
to be different.

The Yellow-billed
Magpie, P. Nuttalli,
Aud., of California,
is seventeen inches

long, and the wing
eight inches.

The Genus Cya-
nnra has the head
crested ; wings and
tail blue, with trans-
verse bars of black.

The Bllie Jay, C. Magpie, P. hudsmiicn, Bonap.

cristata, Sw., of North America east of the Missouri, is
twelve and a quarter inches long, and the wing less than
five and three quarters inches. In beauty of plumage
this bird is not surpassed, if equalled, by any other bird
in the United States ; but its notes are harsh and dis-
agreeable, and its habit of stealing and eating the eggs
and young of other birds gives it an unenviable repu-
tation.

Steller's Jay, C, Stclleri, Sw., of Western North Amer-
ica, is thirteen inches long, and the wing less than six
inches ; the head and neck all round, and the fore part
of the breast, dark brownish-black ; back and lesser
wing-coverts blackish brown ; under parts, rump, tail-
coverts, and wings blue.

228 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Long-crested Jay, C. macrolophus, Baird, of the
Rocky Mountains, is twelve and a half inches long, and
the wing less than six inches, and is distinguished by its
long crest, which is nearly twice the length of the bill.

The Genus Cyanodtta has the head without a crest,
the wings and tail blue, but not banded.

The California Jay, C. calif ornica, Strick., of the Pacific
coast, is twelve and a quarter inches long, and the wing
five inches ; general color above blue without bars ; a
crescent of blue on the fore part of the breast ; under
parts before the crescent, white streaked with blue ; be-
hind it, dull white.

Woodhouse's Jay, C. Woodhousii, Baird, of the Rocky
Mountains ; the Florida Jay, C. floridana, Bonap. ; the
Mountain Jay, C. sordida, Baird, of the Rocky Moun-
tains ; and the Ultramarine Jay, C. tdtramarina, Strick.,
of the Rio Grande region, are additional species of Cy-
anodtta.

The Genus Xanthoura has the bill very stout, head
without a crest, the throat black, and the lateral tail-
feathers bright yellow.

The Rio Grande Jay, X. luxuosa, Bonap., of the Rio
Grande, is eleven inches long, and the wing four and
three quarters inches ; the color above, green ; beneath,
yellow glossed with green ; the inside of the wings and
four outer tail-feathers, yellow ; the sides of the head, and
beneath from the bill to the fore part of the breast, black ;
the crown and nape brilliant blue, and the sides of the
forehead white.

The Genus Perisoreus has the bill very short, and
notched at the tip ; head without a distinct crest.

The Canada Jay, P. canadensis, Bonap., of Northern
North America, is over ten and a half inches long, and
the wing five and three quarters inches ; the head and
neck and fore part of the breast, white ; a plumbeous

INSESSORES I MENURID^. 229

brown nuchal patch, becoming darker to the back, from
which it is separated by a whitish collar ; the other upper
parts plumbeous ; under parts smoky gray.

The Genus Psilorhinns is represented by the Brown
Jay, P. morio, Gray, of the Rio Grande region, which is
sixteen inches long, and the wing eight inches.

MENURID.E, OR LYRE-BIRD FAMILY. This Family
comprises Australian birds which in some respects are
allied to the Thrushes, in others to the Jays, while their
large size has induced some authors to place them with
the Rasores. With this explanation, they may, for con-
venience, be mentioned here. They are nearly as large
as a pheasant, and are distinguished by the remarkable
tail of the male, which is composed of three sorts of
feathers ; twelve very long, and with very fine and
widely separated barbs ; two more, in the middle, only
one side of which is furnished with barbs ; and two more
external, curved into the form of the arms of a lyre, and
whose internal barbs, large and thickly set, form a sort
of broad ribbon, while the external barbs are very short.

PARADISEIDyE, OR BlRD OF PARADISE FAMILY. This

Family comprises birds peculiar to New Guinea and ad-
jacent islands, and distinguished for their wonderfully de-
veloped and beautiful plumage. The Genus Paradiscea
is the principal one.

The Emerald Bird of Paradise, P. apoda, Linn., is about
the size of the American Robin, marroon color, the top
of the head and neck yellow, the throat and around the
bill emerald. The sides of the tail have a splendid plume
of long, loose feathers of a delicate yellow hue, and on
either side of these are two slender shafts nearly two feet
in length.

BUCERID/E, OR HORNBILL FAMILY. This Family com-
prises large birds of Africa and India, which have the bill
very large, dentated, and generally surmounted with an

23O VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

extraordinary protuberance, which in some cases is as
large as the bill itself. By their bill these birds are allied
to the Toucans, but their general carriage and habits ap-
proximate them to the Crows.

SUB-SECTION IV.

THE ORDER OF RASORES, OR SCRATCHERS.

THE Order of Rasores comprises Birds which have the
bill not longer than the head, the terminal portion
more or less vaulted, and hard, and with or without a
soft skin intervening between it and the head, and the
nostril with a fleshy scale extending over its upper edge.
With few exceptions, they have a heavy body, short wings,
rather stout legs, and large tail. They live mainly upon
the ground, are social in their habits, and feed princi-
pally upon nuts, berries, buds, tender leaves, and grain.

The Rasores comprise two Sub-Orders, Columbas
and Gallinae.

The Sub-Order of Columbae or Doves comprises those
which have the bill shorter than the head, the basal por-
tion covered by a soft skin in which the nostrils are sit-
uated, the hind toe on the same level as the others, and
the anterior toe without a basal membrane. They live in
pairs, lay generally but two eggs for a brood, but breed
often, and feed their young, which are hatched in a very
feeble condition, with macerated food from their own
crops. Bonaparte calls the true Doves or Pigeons Gy-
rantes, and divides them into four families ; Treronidae,
of the Old World, and especially of the islands of the
Pacific, which have the bill robust and tumid, the feathers
soft and without lustre, the prevailing color green, and
the tail with fourteen feathers ; Columbidae, universally
distributed ; Caloenidae, of the East India islands ; and
Gouridae, of New Guinea.

RASORES: COLUMBID^;. 23!

COLUMBID/E, OR DOVE FAMILY. This Family com-
prises those which have the bill horny at the tip, tail-
feathers twelve, occasionally fourteen, and the plumage
more or less adorned with metallic lustre. About a
dozen species are found in North America, and all but
two or three belong to the southern and southwestern
portions.

The Genus Columba has the head large, and the tail
short, broad, and rounded. It comprises the Band-tailed
Pigeon, C. fasciata, Say, of Western North America ; the
Red-billed Dove, C.flavirostris, Wagl., of the Lower Rio
Grande ; and the White-headed Pigeon, C. leucoccphala,
Linn., of Florida Keys.

The Rock Dove, C. livia, Briss., of Europe and Asia,
is of a slate-gray color, the neck glossy with greenish
hues, the rump white, and a double black band upon the
wings. This species is celebrated as the probable stock
of most, if not all, of our domestic varieties.

The Carrier Pigeon is a domestic variety which from
very ancient times has been employed more or less for
the transmission of intelligence. Formerly it was cus-
tomary to suspend the paper upon which the message
was written from the neck ; but in later times it has been
tied to the upper part of the leg. A message has thus
been sent a thousand miles.

The Genus Ectopistcs has the head very small, bill
short and black, and the tail very long and cuneate.

The Wild or Passenger Pigeon, E. migratoria, Sw., of
North America east of the High Central Plains, is seven-
teen inches long, and the wing eight and a half inches ;
the upper parts blue, under parts purplish red passing
into whitish behind, and the sides and back of the neck
a glossy golden-violet. The female is smaller and much
duller in color. This bird is extremely rapid in flight,
being able to perform a long journey at an average speed

232 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

of a mile a minute. The migrations are wholly for the
purpose of procuring food, and hence do not take place
at any particular season of the year. Pigeons go wher-
ever they can find a supply of grain, rice, or nuts. The

Fig. 126.

Wild Pigeon, E. migratoria, Sw.

numbers that sometimes move together are vast beyond
conception. Millions associate in a single roost, com-
pletely filling a forest for thirty or forty miles in length
and several miles in breadth, and literally loading and
breaking down large trees. From their roosts they fly
off hundreds of miles, in some cases, to feeding-grounds,
and return at night. Sometimes, in their migrations,
they fill the air like a cloud, and thus continue to pass
for a whole day, and even for two or three successive
days. The nest is built on high trees, and is composed
of a few dry sticks and twigs crossing each other, and
supported by the forks of the branches ; and more than
a hundred nests are sometimes placed on a single tree.
The Genus Zenaida, represented by the Zenaida Dove,
Z. amabilis, Bonap., of the Florida Keys, has the tail
short, rounded, and the orbits feathered.

RASORES: COLUMBID.E. 233

The Genus Melopelia, represented by the White-winged
Dove, M. lencoptcra, Bonap., of the Rio Grande and the
West Indies, has the tail short, rounded, and the orbits
naked.

The Genus Zcnaidura has the tail excessively length-
ened, cuneate, and with fourteen feathers.

The Carolina Dove, Z. carolincnsis, Bonap., of the
United States, is nearly thirteen inches long, the wing
five and three quarters inches ; the color above, bluish,
overlaid with brownish olive ; the head, sides of the neck,
and under parts generally, light brownish-red, strongly
tinged on the breast with purple ; the sides of the neck
with a patch of metallic purplish-red ; the bill black, and
feet yellow. The female is smaller, with less red be-
neath. At night, doves of this species roost upon the
ground, and some distance apart.

The Turtle Dove, C. turtur, Linn., of the Old World,
celebrated for its gentleness and plaintive notes, is eleven
and a half inches long ; the upper parts tawny slate-color
spotted with brown ; the breast brownish, and the other
under parts white.

The Genus Scardafdla, represented by the Scaly Dove,
6". sqnamosa, Bonap., of the Rio Grande, which is only
eight inches long, has the bill lengthened, tail very long,
and much graduated.

The Genus Ckamcepflui, comprising the smallest doves
known, is represented by the Ground Dove, C. passerina,
Sw., of the Southern States, which is only six and three
tenths inches long, and the wing three and a half inches ;
color above, grayish olive ; under parts light purplish-red.

The Genus Oreopeleia, represented by the Key West
Pigeon, O. martinica, Reich., has the bill lengthened,
slender, feet large, and tail suborbicular.

The Genus Starnoenas has the bill short, legs stout,
tail short and broad. It is represented by the Blue-

234 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

headed Pigeon, S. cyanoccpkala, Bonap., of Key West and
the West Indies, which much resembles the quails.

GouRiDyE, OR GOURA FAMILY. This Family com-
prises Columbae of large size, with the head conspicuously
crested. They belong to the Indian Archipelago.

The Genus Goura comprises the Crown Pigeon, G. coro-
nata, Temm., which is about the size of a turkey, and the
head has a vertical crest of long, slender feathers.

The Sub-Order of Gallinae comprises the true Rasores,
which have the bill short, stout, and the basal portion
hard, and generally covered by feathers, and not by soft
skin ; the legs lengthened, the hind toe in most cases
elevated, the toes connected at the base by a membrane.
The young are able to run about as soon as hatched.
There are five families, Penelopidae or Curassow Fam-
ily, Megapodidae or Mound-Bird Family, Phasianidae or
Pheasant Family, Tetraonidae or Grouse Family, and Per-
dicidae or Quail Family.

PENELOPIDAE, OR CURASSOW FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds peculiar to Central and South America.
They are mainly of large size, about as large as turkeys,
and move in flocks, and build their nests among and
often upon the trees. They are known under the names
of Curassows, Hoccos, and Guans.

The Genus Ortalida is represented by the Chiacalacca,
Ortalida AlcCalli, Baird, of New Mexico, which is twenty-
three and a half inches long, the wing eight and a half
inches ; above dark greenish-olive, beneath brownish
yellow, head and upper part of the neck plumbeous, tail-
feathers lustrous green, and all except the middle one
tipped with white.

MEGAPODID/E, OR MOUND-BIRD FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises Indian and Australian birds which are cele-
brated for building large mounds of vegetation and sand,
in which they deposit their eggs.

RASORES : PHASIANID^E. 235

PHASIANID.E OR PHEASANT FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds which have the legs, toes, and nasal fossae
bare, the tarsus in the male with one or more spurs, the
hind toe elevated above the others, and the tail-feathers
more than twelve. It includes the Turkeys, Peacocks,
Guinea Fowls, Jungle Fowls, Domestic Fowls, and Pheas-
ants. All except the Turkeys are indigenous to the Old
World, although many of them are now widely distrib-
uted over the globe.

The Genus Melcagris comprises the Turkeys, of which
there are two species, both indigenous to America. .

The Wild Turkey, M. gallopavo, Linn., of the United
States, is about forty-eight inches long, the stretch of
wings about sixty inches. The prevailing color is copper-
bronze with copper and green reflections, each feather
with a black margin. The quills are brown closely barred
with white, tail chestnut barred with black, head livid
blue, and the legs red. The male averages fifteen to
eighteen pounds' weight, and the female about nine
pounds, although the former, in some cases, attains thirty
to forty pounds. The great size and beauty of this bird,
and the fact of its being the origin of all the domestic
varieties of turkeys of both hemispheres, together with
the well-known delicacy of its flesh as an article of food,
render it one of the most interesting of this country. It
is rare on the Atlantic coast, but is still common in the
regions farther west. The question is now in agitation
whether there are not really two or three species of Wild
Turkey in the United States.

The Ocellated Turkey, M. ocdlata, of Central America,
is exceedingly beautiful, the plumage exhibiting the most
brilliant and varied metallic reflections ; and the tail and
tail-coverts are ornamented with four series of large ocel-
lated spots.

The Genus Pavo Peacocks has the head crested,

236 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

and the tail of the male excessively elongated. The
Common Peacock, P. cristatus, Linn., was introduced
into Europe by Alexander the Great.

The Genus Numida, comprising the Guinea Fowls of
tropical Africa, has the frontal bone much developed,
producing a vertical crest, the lower jaw with two fleshy
lobes, no spur on the tarsi, and the tail very short.

The Common Guinea Fowl, N. mcleagris, Linn., of the
farm-yard, is known by every one. In the wild state, it
lives in flocks, and prefers the vicinity of marshes.

The Genus Callus comprises our domestic varieties of
the Cock kind, and the Jungle Fowl of India.

The domestic Cock, G. doincsticus, Linn., is too well
known to need description. This bird has been in the
possession of man from the earliest times, and the varie-
ties are now almost endless. They have all sprung from
the Jungle Fowls of India, of which there are many spe-
cies, all of which bear great resemblance to our domestic
varieties.

The Genus PJiasianns, or Pheasants, has the tail ex-
cessively long, the feathers of which overlap like tiles.
There are several species, all natives of Asia.

The Common Pheasant, P. colcJncus, Linn., of Europe,
is thirty-four inches long, the head and neck of metallic
lustre, and the rest of the plumage golden fawn-color
with markings of green. The female is smaller, and
brownish. This bird, now found throughout temperate
Europe, is said to have been brought from the banks of
the Phasis, a river of Colchis.

The Golden Pheasant, P. pictus, Linn., of China, so re-
markable for its magnificent plumage, has a golden-colored
crest, the neck orange speckled with black, the back green,
the rump yellow, the lower parts and wings red, the latter
with a blue spot, and the long tail brown spotted with gray.

The Argus Pheasant, P. argus, Linn., of India, sur-

RASORES: TETRAONID.E. 237

passes in size and splendor all others of this genus. The
tail is very long, making the entire length of the bird over
sixty inches. The secondaries are excessively elongated
and widened, and covered with ocellated spots, so that,
when the wings are expanded, the appearance of this
bird is splendid beyond description.

TETRAONID.E, OR GROUSE FAMILY. This Family
comprises gallinaceous birds which have the nasal fossae
filled and covered with feathers, tarsi densely feathered,
toes usually naked and pectinated along their edges.

The Genus Tctrao has the tarsus feathered to and be-
tween the bases of the toes, and the color mainly black.
The Grouse of this genus inhabit wooded regions.

The Dusky Grouse, T. obscurus, Say, of Nebraska and
to the Cascade Mountains, is twenty and a half inches
long, and the wing nine and two fifths inches ; the tail
has twenty feathers.

The Canada Grouse or Spruce Partridge, T. canaden-
sis, Linn., of Northern North America, is over sixteen
inches long, the wing nearly seven inches ; and the tail
with sixteen feathers. The feathers above are banded
with plumbeous ; beneath, the color is uniform black, with
a pectoral white band, and white on the sides of the belly.

Franklin's Grouse, T. Franklinii, Douglas, of the Rocky
Mountains and westward, is similar to the preceding one.

The Cock of the Woods, or Capercailzie, T. nrogallns,
Linn., of Europe, is larger than the Turkey, being the
largest of the Gallinae.

The Black Cock, T. tctrix, Linn., is another European
species, about the size of the domestic Cock.

The Genus Centrocercus has the lower throat and sides
with stiffened spinous feathers, the tail excessively length-
ened, and cuneate.

The Sage Cock, or Cock of the Plains, C. urophasianus,
Sw., of the plains of the northwest portions of America,

238 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

is twenty-nine inches long, and the wing over eleven
inches ; the upper parts mottled with black, brown, and
brownish yellow ; the under parts black and white.

The Genus Pediocates has the central tail-feathers
lengthened.

The Sharp-tailed Grouse, P. phasianellus, Baird, of the
plains of Wisconsin and westward, is eighteen inches
long, and the wing eight and a half inches, and distin-
guished by the tail, which has eighteen feathers, the cen-
tral pair elongated beyond the rest an inch or more.

The Genus Cupidonia has the tail short, the bare space
of the neck concealed by a tuft of lanceolate feathers.

The Pinnated Grouse, or Prairie Chicken, C. cupido,
Baird, of the Western prairies, is sixteen and a half inches
long, and the wing nearly nine inches ; the colors whitish
brown and brownish yellow, the feathers with transverse
bars of brown. A tuft of long, pointed feathers on each
side of the neck covers a naked, orange-colored air-sack,
which is capable of great inflation. These air-sacks en-
able the males to produce the peculiar booming sounds
which are always heard during the pairing season. When
the air-receptacles are inflated, the bird lowers his head
to the ground, and, opening its bill, utters a succession
of sounds, going from loud to low till the air of the sacks
is exhausted ; then immediately erecting itself, and inflat-
ing the sacks, it proceeds as before. These sounds may
be heard a mile or more. In autumn and winter, they
associate in flocks of hundreds. They are easily tamed.
Audubon caught sixty in the early autumn, and, having
clipped the tips of their wings, put them in a garden and
orchard of four acres ; within a week they were not
frightened at his approach, and before winter was over
they would eat from the hand.

The Genus Bonasa has eighteen tail-feathers, the lower
half of the tarsi naked, the naked space upon the neck

RASORES I TETRAONID^:. 239

covered by a tuft of broad, soft feathers, and the head
with a soft crest.

The Ruffed Grouse, or Partridge, B. nmbcllns, Steph.,
of the Eastern United States and westward, is eighteen
inches long, and the wing over seven inches ; the color
reddish brown or gray above, the back with spots of light-
er ; the under parts whitish barred with dull brown ; the
feathers of the ruff are black ; the beautiful tail is tipped
with gray, and has a subterminal bar of black. This bird
prefers the borders of forests, open woods, thickets of
evergreens and birches, and the vicinity of brooks shaded
with alder. Nothing can excel the grace with which it
moves upon the ground. It walks with a proud step,
elevated head, the ruffs more or less raised, and its exqui-
sitely beautiful tail partly spread. It poises itself a second
or two on one foot, then on the other, and at almost every
movement utters a soft cluck. If disturbed, it lowers its
head, spreads its tail wider, and runs rapidly into the
thickest bushes. If there be no hiding-place near, it at
once takes wing with the loud whirring which all have
heard who have had the pleasure of visiting its favorite
resorts. According to Audubon, these sounds are never
heard when the bird rises of its own accord, but only
when flushed by a real or supposed enemy. The flight
is straight, rather low, and under ordinary circumstances
not more than one or two hundred yards at a time. If,
when flushed, it alights upon a tree, as is often the case
in regions where it has not been much hunted, it will
generally be found, if at all, on the side farthest from the
pursuer, and close to the trunk, and standing so still and
erect that one can readily mistake it for a stump of a
broken limb.

The Oregon Grouse, B. Sabinii, Baird, of Western
North America, is similar to the preceding one.

The Genus Lagopus Ptarmigans has the legs

240

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

closely feathered to the claws. The members of this
genus are snow-white in winter ; in summer, more or
less marked with black, brown, and yellow.

The Willow Grouse, or White Ptarmigan, L. albus,
Aucl, of Northern America, rare in the United States, is
fifteen and a half inches long, the wing about eight inches.
The Rock Ptarmigan, L. rnpcstris, Leach, of Arctic
America, is fourteen and a half inches long, and the wing
seven and a half inches.

The White-tailed Ptarmigan, L. leucurus, Sw., of West-
ern North America, and the American Ptarmigan, L.
Americanus, And., of the Baffin's Bay region, are addi-
tional species.

PERDICID/E, OR PARTRIDGE FAMILY. This Family
comprises birds which differ from the grouse in being
much smaller, and in their bare tarsi and naked nasal
fossae. They are very numerous, and widely distributed,
and not less than forty species belong to America.

The Genus Ortyx has the bill stout, head without a
crest, and the tail short.

The Quail, O. virgi-
niamts, Bonap., of the
United States east of
the High Central Plains,
is ten inches long, the
wing nearly four and
three quarters inches ;
prevailing color above,
brownish red ; the un-
der parts white, tinged
with brown before, and
marked with obtusely
V-shaped spots of black;
the head is beautifully
. Bonap. marked with pure white

Fig. 127.

RASORES : PERDICID^E.

241

Fig. 128.

and black. The female has the white markings of the
head replaced by brownish yellow, and the black want-
ing. In New England, New York, and westward, this
bird is called the Quail ; but in Pennsylvania and south-
ward it is called the Partridge. Its clear whistle is com-
posed of three notes, the first and last of equal length,
the first being loudest. The nest is built near a tuft of
grass ; eggs ten to eighteen, pure white.

The Texas Quail, O. texanus, Lawr., of Texas, is very
similar to the preceding.

The Mountain Quail,
O. pictns, Baird, of the
Mountain ranges of Ore-
gon and California, is ten
and a half inches long,
and the wing five inches.

The Genus Lophortyx
has the head with a crest
of lengthened feathers
springing from the ver-
tex, the shafts in the same
vertical plane.

The California Quail,
L. calif ornicus, Bonap., of
California and Oregon, is
nine and a half inches long, the wing over four and a
quarter inches ; the forward half of the body, and upper
parts, plumbeous ; the crest black.

Gambel's Partridge, L. Gambelli, Nutt, of the Rio
Grande to California, is nine and a half inches long, and
the wing four and a half inches.

The Genus Callipepla has a broad, short, depressed crest
of soft, thick feathers. It is represented by the Scaled
or Blue Partridge, C. squamata, Gray, of the Rio Grande.

The Genus Cyrtonyx has the wings long and broad,
ii p

Mountain Quail, or Plumed Partridge,
Oreortyx pictus, Baird.

242 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

and the coverts so much developed as to conceal the
quills. It is represented by the Massena Partridge, C.
masscna, Gould, of the Upper Rio Grande.

The Genus Perdix comprises the Gray Partridge, P.
cinerca, of Europe, which is about twelve inches long.

The Genus Cotuniix includes the Common European
Quail, C. dactylisonans, which is seven inches long.

SUB-SECTION V.

THE ORDER OF CURSORES, OR RUNNERS.

THE Order of Cursores comprises birds of great size,
with the neck and legs very long, and the wings rudi-
mentary.

STRUTHIONID^:, OR OSTRICH FAMILY. This Family
comprises the Ostriches, Cassowaries, Apteryx, and the
like. They run with great speed, but cannot fly.

The Genus Stmthio is represented by the Eastern Os-
trich, 5. came/us, Linn., of the deserts of Africa and Asia,
which is six to eight feet high. Its feet have but two
toes, and the outer one is only half the length of the
inner, and destitute of a nail. It is so swift of foot that
no animal can overtake it in running. Its eggs weigh
about three pounds each, and are laid in the sand, and,
in the hot regions, left to hatch, but in cooler regions are
brooded with care, and defended with great courage.

The Genus Rhea comprises the American Ostrich, of
South America, which is much smaller than the preced-
ing, and particularly distinguished by having three toes,
all armed with nails ; color, gray. It is said that several
of them lay their eggs in one and the same nest.

The Genus Casuarius has even shorter wings than the
Ostriches, and feathers which resemble pendent hairs,
and three toes, each furnished with a nail.

The Galeated Cassowary, C. galeatus, of the Indian

CURSORES : OTID.E. 243

Archipelago, is about five feet high, and the head sur-
mounted by a horny crest. The wings have some stems
without barbs, which seem to serve as weapons of de-
fence.

The Emeu or New Holland Cassowary, C. nova hol-
landitz, Lath., of Australia, is five to seven feet high.

The Genus Apteryx comprises New Zealand species,
which, in addition to their rudimentary wings, are dis-
tinguished by their elongated, slender bill, which bears
the nostrils at the tip of the upper mandible.

OTID^E, OR BUSTARD FAMILY. This Family comprises
birds which have the massive carriage of the Gallinae,
the long neck and legs of the Ostriches, while in the
absence of a thumb the smaller species especially ap-
proximate the Plovers ; and their wings are short not
rudimentary and seldom used except to assist in run-
ning. They belong to the Eastern hemisphere. Otis is
the only genus.

The Great Bustard, O. tarda, Linn., is the largest bird
of Europe, the male attaining the length of four feet,
and the weight of thirty pounds or more.

SUB-SECTION VI.

THE ORDER OF GRALLATORES, OR WADERS.

THE Order of Grallatores comprises birds which have
the bill, neck, and legs very long, tail short, and the legs
bare for some distance above the tarsal joint. They live
near the water, upon shores or marshes, or more rarely
upon dry plains. The Grallatores may be divided into
two Sub-Orders, Herodiones and Grallae.

The Sub-Order of Herodiones comprises those which
have the bill thick at the base, much longer than the
head, the face more or less naked, and the hind toe gen-
erally lengthened and nearly on the same level with the

244 VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

anterior ones ; and the young are hatched in a weak
condition, and reared in a nest. It includes the Gruidae
or Crane Family, Aramidae or Courlan Family, Ardeidae
or Heron Family, Cancromidae or Boat-bill Family, Cin-
conidae or Stork Family, Tantalidae or Ibis Family, Plata-
leidae or Spoon-bill Family., and Phcenicopteridas or Fla-
mingo Family.

GRUIDAE, OR CRANE FAMILY. This Family comprises
very large birds, which have the head more or less bare,
the toes connected by a basal membrane, and the hind
toe short and much elevated. They inhabit dry plains.

The Genus Grus is the only one represented in North
America.

The White or Whooping Crane, G. americanus, Ord,
of Florida and Texas, and occasionally in the Mississippi
Valley, is fifty-two inches long, and the wing twenty-four
inches.

The Sandhill Crane, or Brown Crane, G. canadcnsis,
Temm., of the Mississippi Valley and westward, is forty-
eight inches long, and the wing twenty-two inches. It is
exceedingly wary, and its sight and hearing are acute.
When wounded, it is dangerous to approach it, as a single
thrust from its bill may inflict a severe wound.

The Little Crane, G. fraterculus, Cass., of New Mexico,
is seventeen and a half inches long.

ARAMID.E, OR COURLAN FAMILY. This Family com-
prises birds which have the head feathered to the bill,
toes cleft to the base, and the hind toe long.

The Genus Aramus is represented by the Courlan, or
Crying Bird, A. giganteus, Baird, of Florida and the West
Indies, which is twenty-seven and a half inches long.

ARDEID^, OR HERON FAMILY. This Family com-
prises waders which have the bill acuminate, compressed,
acute, and the edges usually notched at the end ; the
frontal feathers generally extending beyond the nostrils,

GRALLATORES : ARDEID^E. 245

the inner toe connected by a basal web to the outer ; the
claws acute, and the middle one pectinated on its inner
edge. It is represented all over the globe.

The Genus Demigretta has a full occipital crest of elon-
gated feathers, and the back has free plumes longer than
the tail.

Peak's Egret, D. Pealii, Baird, of South Florida, is
thirty inches long, and the wing thirteen inches. The
color is pure white, the terminal half of the bill black.

Reddish Egret, D. rufa, Baird, of the Gulf States, is
thirty inches long, and the wing twelve and a half inches.

Louisiana Heron, D. ludoviciana, Baird, of the South-
ern States, is twenty-five inches long, and the wing ten
and a half inches ; slate-blue above ; rump, under parts,
and the longest occipital feathers, white.

The Genus Garzetta has a full occipital crest ; middle
of the back with long plumes reaching to the tail, and
recurved at the tips.

The Snowy Heron, G. candidissima, Bonap., of the coast
of the Middle and Gulf States, and across to California,
is twenty-four inches long, and the wing over ten inches.

The Genus ffcrodias has no crest, the back with plumes
longer than the tail, and curving gently downwards.

The White Heron, H. egretta, Gray, of the Southern
States, and accidental in New England, is thirty-nine
inches long, and the wing fifteen and a half inches. The
California White Heron is probably a larger variety.

The Genus Ardca has the bill very thick, occiput with
a few elongated feathers, and no dorsal plumes.

The Great Blue Heron or Crane, A. hcrodias, Linn., of
North America and the West Indies, is forty-two inches
long, the wing eighteen and a half inches, and the bill
five and a half inches. This bird frequents ponds and
creeks, where it may be seen standing upon a rock or
stump for hours, watching for fish, upon which it feeds.

246

VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

When a fish comes within reach, it instantly transfixes
it with its sharp bill, and afterwards swallows it whole.

Great Blue Heron, A. herodias, Linn.

It also feeds upon reptiles, mice, and young birds. When
wounded, it at once prepares for defence, and the dog or
man who comes within reach is sure to receive a severe

GRALLATORES : ARDEIDvE. 247

wound ; and the danger is greater, as these birds gen-
erally aim at the eye. The nest is placed on a large
tree in a dense swamp. It is large and flat, built of
sticks, and matted with grass and mosses. The eggs
are three, dull bluish-white.

The Florida Heron, A. Wurdmanii, Baird, of South
Florida, is forty-nine inches long.

The Genus Andnbonia comprises the Great White
Heron, A. occidcntalis, Bonap., of South Florida and Cuba,
which is forty-five inches long.

The Genus Florida has the bill convex above, straight
below, and very acute.

The Blue Heron, F. ctzrulca, Baird, of the South At-
lantic and Gulf States, is twenty-two inches long, the
wing eleven inches ; the color slate-blue.

The Genus Ardctta has claws long and acute, body
compressed, the lower neck bare of feathers behind, and
the tail with ten feathers. It embraces the smallest
known herons.

The Least Bittern, A. exilis, Gray, of North America,
is thirteen inches long, the wing four and three quarters
inches ; the head above and back dark glossy green ; the
upper neck, shoulders, greater coverts, and outer webs of
some of the tertials, purplish cinnamon. The female has
the green of the head and back replaced by chestnut.
The nest is built on low bushes ; eggs three to four, dull
yellowish-green.

The Genus Botaunts has the plumage loose, and the
sexes similar.

The Bittern or Stake-driver, B. Icntiginosns, Steph., of
all North America, is twenty-six and a half inches long,
the wing eleven inches ; the color is brownish yellow
finely varied with dark brown and brownish red ; and
there is a broad, black stripe on each side of the neck.
It seldom flies till you are close upon it, and then it
moves off very sluggishly.

248

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.
Fig. 130.

Bittern or Stake-driver, B. lentiginosus, Steph.

The Genus Butoridcs has the bill gently curved from
the base above, and the tail with twelve feathers. It is
represented by the Green Heron or Fly-up-the-Creek, B.
virescens, Bonap., of the United States generally, which
is fifteen inches long, the wing seven and a half inches.

The Genus Nyctiardca has the bill very stout, the end
of the upper mandible gently decurved, and an occipital
plume of three feathers rolled together.

The Night Heron, N. Gardeni, Baird, of the United
States generally, is twenty-five inches long, and the wing
twelve and a half inches ; the head above and middle of
the back steel-green ; wings and tail ashy blue ; forehead,
the long occipital feathers, and under parts, white. This
species breeds in communities, making nests in trees
around stagnant ponds or in swamps ; eggs four, light
sea-green. These birds perform their migrations in the
night, at which times their loud, hoarse note may be
heard, which has been represented by the syllable qua.

The Genus Nyctherodius has the bill very thick.

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron, N. violaccns, Reich.,

GRALLATORES: CINCONID^. 249

of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, is twenty-four
inches long, and the wing twelve inches.

CANCROMID/E, OR BOAT-BILL FAMILY. This Family
comprises waders which resemble herons in all but the
bill, which appears like that of a heron very much flat-
tened. Its shape has been aptly compared to a boat with
the keel upward.

The Genus Cancroma is represented by the Boat-bill,
C. cocJilcaria, of South America, which is about the size
of the domestic hen. It lives near the water, and feeds
upon fish.

CINCONID.E, OR STORK FAMILY. - -This Family in-
cludes the Stork of the Old World, and the Jabirus of
both hemispheres. They have the bill thicker than in
Ardeidae, and nearly equal membranes between the bases
of the toes.

The Genus Cinconia comprises the White Stork, C.
alba, Cuv., of Europe, which is forty-two inches long,
white, with the quills of the wings black, and the feet
and bill red. It is held in high estimation on account of
its destruction of noxious reptiles. It prefers to build its
nest in towers and steeples, and returns to the same spot
year after year.

The Pouched Stork, C. marabou, Temm., and C. argala,
Temm., respectively of the tropical regions of Africa and
of India, have an appendage under the throat resembling
a thick sausage. These birds are six feet high as they
ordinarily stand, and seven when the neck is fully erect,
and the expanse of wings is fifteen feet. They are black
above and white below, and are popularly known as Ad-
jutants. The beautiful plumes known as Marabouts are
obtained from under the wing of these birds.

The Genus Jabiru comprises very large birds, which
differ from the Storks in having the extremity of the bill
curved upward.

250

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

TANTALID^:, OR IBIS FAMILY. This Family comprises
waders with the bill very long, rounded, much attenuated
and decurved, and the toes with a basal web.

The Genus Tantalus has the head, in the adult, en-
tirely destitute of feathers.

Fig. 131. The Wood Ibis, 7!

loculator, Linn., of
the Southern States,
is forty -five inches
long, the wing eigh-
teen and a half inch-
es ; the color white,
quills and tail a me-
tallic blackish-green.
Birds of this species
live in flocks, feeding
upon fish and aquat-
ic reptiles. Finding
shallows that abound
in fish, they move

Wood Ibis, T. loculator. Linn. Jg-nat. size. aboilt till the Water

has become muddy, which causes the fish to rise to the
surface, when they are struck by the bills of the Ibis,
and killed. Soon the surface is covered with dead fishes
and reptiles, and the birds swallow them until they have
gorged themselves, after which they go to the shore,
and arrange themselves in rows, with their breasts turned
towards the sun. It is dangerous to approach them when
wounded, as they bite severely.

The Genus Ibis has the bill very long, moderately thick-
ened at the base, and curves downward towards the tip.

The Red or Scarlet Ibis, or Pink Curlew, /. rubra,
Vieill., of South America and the West Indies, acciden-
tally in the United States, is twenty-eight inches long,
the wing nearly eleven, and the bill nearly seven inches.

GRALLATORES: PHCENICOPTERIDjE. 2$ I

The White Ibis, or White Curlew, /. alba, Vieill., of the
South Atlantic and Gulf States, rarely northward, is
twenty-five inches long, the wing eleven and a quarter
inches, and the bill seven inches ; color white. This spe-
cies feeds largely upon crawfish, which it often secures
by a curious process. The crawfish, in dry weather,
burrows to the depth of three or four feet, and in all
cases deep enough to reach damp earth or water. The
Ibis carefully approaches the hole, drops in pieces of
earth, and then retires a step, and silently awaits the
result. Soon the crawfish begins to remove the earth
thus thrown in, but no sooner does it come to the en-
trance of its burrow than it is seized.

The Glossy Ibis, /. Ordii, Bonap., found sparingly
throughout the United States, is twenty and a half inches
long, the wing ten inches ; color chestnut.

PLATALEID/E, OR SPOON-BILL FAMILY. This Family
comprises large birds which have the bill completely de-
pressed and very broad, and widening at the rounded
tip. Seven or eight species are known.

The Genus Platclla comprises our only species, the
Rosy Spoonbill, P. ajaja, Linn., of the South Atlantic
and Gulf States, which is thirty inches long, the wing
fifteen inches, and the bill seven ; color rose-red.

PncENicopTERiDyE, OR FLAMINGO FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises birds with the legs and neck excessively
elongated, toes fully webbed, bill bent abruptly in the
middle, and the edges lamellated. Some place this fam-
ily here, and others put it in with Anseres.

The Genus PJiccnicoptems is represented by the Fla-
mingo, P. rubcr, Linn., of the warmer parts of America,
which is forty-five inches long, the wing sixteen and a
half inches ; color scarlet.

The Sub-Order of Grallae comprises waders which have
the head feathered to the bill, the latter, when much

252 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

longer than the head, slender and contracted at the base,
and whose young run about and pick up food as soon
as hatched. Instead of building their nests upon trees or
bushes, as in the case of the Herodiones, the members
of this group, with some exceptions, lay their eggs in a
cavity scooped out in the sand.

The Grallae comprise the Charadridse or Plover Family,
Haematopodidae or Turnstone Family, Recurvirostridas
or Avoset Family, Phalaropidas or Phalarope Family,
Scolopacidae or Snipe Family, and Rallidae or Rail Fam-
ily.

CHARADRID^:, OR PLOVER FAMILY. This Family com-
prises waders which have the bill rather cylindrical, as
long as the head or shorter, culmen much indented op-
posite the nostrils, hind toe rarely present and when
present only rudimentary, and the outer and middle toes
more or less united by a membrane. The wings, when
folded back, reach beyond the tail ; the head very large,
and the neck short and thick.

Fig. 132. The Genus Charadrius is

represented by the Golden
Plover, C. virginicus, Borck.,
of both hemispheres, which
is nine and a half inches long,
the wing seven inches ; the
upper parts brownish black,
with numerous spots of gold-
en yellow ; under parts black,
with a brownish lustre.

Golden Plover, C. virgimc**, Borck. J he QenUS ^EgialitlS haS

the plumage without spots, the neck and head generally
with dark bands.

The Kill-deer, A. vocifcnts, Cass., of North and South
America, is nine and a half inches long, and the wing six
and a half inches ; the head above and the upper parts of

GRALLATORES : CHARADRID^. 253

the body, light brown ; the rump and upper tail-coverts
rufous ; the front, and lines over and under the eye, white ;
above the white band in front is one of black ; a black
band on the breast, and a black ring around the neck ;
the throat is white, and this color extends upwards around
the neck ; the under parts, with the exceptions named, are
also white. It takes its popular name from its peculiar
note.

The Mountain Plover, A. montanus, Cass., of Western
North America, is about nine inches long, the wing six
inches.

Wilson's Plover, A. Wilsonius, Cass., of the Atlantic
Southern States and South America, is smaller than the
preceding.

The King Plover, or Semi-palmated Plover, A. scmi-
palmatus, Cab., of all temperate North America, is about
seven inches long, and the wing four and three quarters
inches ; the front, throat, a ring around the neck, and
the under parts, white ; a band of black across the breast,
which extends around the back of the neck below the
white ring ; a band from the base of the bill under the
eye, and a wide frontal band above the white one, black ;
the upper parts light ashy-brown with a tinge of olive.

The Piping Plover, A. melodns, Cab., of the eastern
coast of North America, is seven inches long, the wing
four and a half inches ; the forehead, a ring round the
neck, and entire under parts, white ; a black band in
front above the white one, and a black band encircling
the neck before and behind, immediately below the ring
of white ; the head above and upper parts of the body
light brownish-cinereous ; the quills dark brown marked
with white ; the tail tipped with white, and the outer
feathers white, and middle ones with a subterminal band
of black.

The Western Plover, A. nivosns, Cass., of California, is

254 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

six and a half inches long, and the wing three and three
quarters inches.

The Genus Sqnatarola has a rudimentary hind toe.

The Black-bellied Plover, 5. helvetica, Cuv., of all North
America and the sea-coasts of all countries, is eleven and
a half inches long, and the wing seven and a half inches.

The Genus Aphriza has the bill shorter than the head,
the hind toe distinct, and tail even.

The Surf-bird, A. virgata, Gray, of the islands of the
Pacific, is ten inches long, and the wing seven inches.

HvEMATOPODiDyE, OR TURNSTONE FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises waders which have the bill compressed.

The Genus Hcematopus Oyster-catchers has the bill
longer than the tarsus, hind toe wanting, tarsus reticu-
lated anteriorly, and the middle and outer toes connected
by a basal membrane.

The Oyster-catcher, H. palliatns, Temm., of the Atlan-
tic coast, is seventeen and a half inches long, and the
wing ten inches ; the upper parts light ashy-brown ; un-
der parts and upper tail-coverts, and a wide diagonal band
across the wings, white.

Backman's Oyster-catcher, H. niger, Pallas, of the west-
ern coast of the United States, is seventeen inches long,
the wing ten and a half inches ; the head and neck
brownish black ; all other parts of the plumage dark
brown ; the bill bright red, legs pale reddish.

The Dusky Oyster-catcher, H. ater, Vieill., of Chili and
perhaps of the western coast of North America, is larger
than either of the preceding.

The Genus Strcpsilas Turnstones has the bill ta-
pering to rather a blunt point, the tip slightly bent up-
ward, and the hind toe lengthened.

The Turnstone, 5. interprcs, Illig., of North America,
and of nearly every country, is nine inches long, and
the wing six inches ; the upper parts irregularly varie-

GRALLATORES I RECURVIROSTRID^E.

255

Turnstone, S. interpres, Illig.

gated with black, dark rufous, Fl z- J 33-

and white ; the abdomen, under

wing, and tail-coverts, rump, and

back, white ; the head and neck

above generally white, with spots

and stripes of brownish black

on the crown and occiput ; the

throat is white with a black

stripe on each side connecting

with a black patch on the breast.

The Black Turnstone, 5. mclanoccphala, Vig., of West-
ern North America, is darker than the preceding one.

RECURVIROSTRID/E, OR AVOSET FAMILY. - -This Fam-
ily comprises birds which are at once distinguished by
their excessively elongated legs, long and slender neck,
and long and slender bill.

The Genus Rccnrvirostra has the bill extended into a
fine point, and recurved at the tip, and toes webbed.

The American Avoset, R. amcricana, Gm., of all North
America, is seventeen inch-
es long, the wing about
eight and a half inches ; the
head and neck pale reddish-
brown ; back, wing-coverts,
and quills, black; other parts
white.

The Genus Himantopus
has the bill nearly straight.
It is represented by the
Black-necked Stilt, H. ni-
gricollis, Vieill., of North
America, which is fourteen
inches long, the wing about
eight and a half inches.

PHALAROPID^E, OR PHALAROPE FAMILY. This Family

Fig. 134-

Black-necked Stilt, H. nigricollis, Vieill.

256 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

comprises waders which have the lateral groove of the
bill extending nearly to the tip, toes with a lateral mar-
gin, the hinder with a feeble lobe, and the feathers of the
breast compact.

The Genus Phalaropus Phalaropes has the mem-
brane generally more or less scalloped at the joints.

Wilson's Phalarope, P. Wilsonii, Sab., of North Amer-
ica, is nine and a half inches long, and the wings five and
a half inches ; the back, wings, and tail, cinereous ; rump
and upper tail-coverts, and under parts, white ; a wide
stripe behind the eye blackish ; the neck before, and a
stripe running upwards to the back, bright reddish-brown.

The Northern Phalarope, P. liypcrborcus, Temm., of
nearly all countries, is seven inches long, and the wing
four and a half inches ; the bill short, straight, and
pointed ; upper parts dark ; lower, white ; and the neck
with a ring of bright ferruginous.

The Red Phalarope, P. fulicarins, Bonap., of the tem-
perate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia, is
seven and a half inches long, and the wing five and a
quarter inches ; the under parts deep brownish-red ; dark
above.

ScoLOPACiDjE, OR SNIPE FAMILY. - - This Family com-
prises waders which have the bill generally longer than
the head, and the hind toe generally present.

The Genus Philohela Woodcocks - - has the body
very full, head, bill, and eyes very large, wings short and
rounded, and the toes cleft to the base.

The American Woodcock, P. minor, Gray, of Eastern
North America, is eleven inches long, and the wing five
and a quarter inches ; the bill very long, the upper man-
dible longer than the under, and fitted to it at the tip ;
the eyes far from the bill, and the tail short ; the occiput
with three transverse bands of black alternating with
three of pale yellowish-rufous ; the upper parts of the

GRALLATORES: SCOLOPACID^E. 257

body variegated with ashy Flg - I35 -

reddish and black ; the under
parts pale rufous, bill brown,
and legs pale reddish. The
Woodcock is mainly noctur-
nal in its habits, seldom tak-
ing wing in the full light

Of day UnleSS disturbed. It American Woodcock, P. minor, Gray.

walks about, however, and feeds by day as well as by
night. Its food is mainly earthworms, of which it swal-
lows as many in a day as would equal its own weight ;
and hence its favorite resorts are where it can obtain
these worms in abundance. The moist grounds which
these birds frequent are perfectly filled with bill-holes
which they have made in probing for worms ; and these
holes become a guide to the hunter, who looks at their
frequency and freshness when he would find good shoot-
ing. When flushed by the hunter or the dog, the Wood-
cock ordinarily flies but a short distance, plunging into
a clump of bushes or thicket near by, or a thicker part
of the swamp. It spends the winter in warm climates,
but breeds from the Carolinas to Nova Scotia. The nest,
made of dead leaves and grass, is placed under a bush,
or beside a fallen trunk. The eggs, which are laid from
February to June, according to locality, are usually four,
dull yellowish clay-color, irregularly and thickly marked
with dark brown. In three or four weeks from the time
the young are hatched, they are able to fly ; and when
six weeks old, they fly almost as well as the old ones.

The Genus Gallinago has a more slender body, and
longer legs, than PJiiloJida.

Wilson's or the English Snipe, G. Wilsonii, Bonap., of
the temperate regions of North America, is ten and a
half inches long, and the wing five inches ; upper parts
brownish black, marked with light rufous, yellowish

Q

2 5 8

VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

Wilson's Snipe, G. Wilsonii, Bonap.

Fig. 136. brown, or ashy white ; under

parts white, reddish ashy on the
throat. Flushed by the hunt-
er or other enemy, it dashes
through the air, in a zigzag
course, and when about twen-
ty yards off utters its pecu-
liar wau-aik, which Audubon
says indicates the best time
to fire.

The Genus Macrorhamphus
has the tarsus longer than the
middle toe, and the base of
the outer and middle toe connected by a short web.

The Gray Snipe or Red-breasted Snipe, M. griscus,
Leach, of the temperate regions of North America, is
abbut ten inches long, and the wing five and three quar-
ters inches, and is distinguished from the preceding by
the white shaft of the first quill.

The Greater Longbeak, M. scolopaccns, Lawr., of all
temperate North America, is eleven and a half inches
long, the wing five and three quarters inches.

The Genus Tringa comprises a large number of small
birds which live on the shores of both salt and fresh
water in all parts of the world. They are found more
or less in flocks, and feed upon small or minute shell-
fish and other small aquatic animals. Their wings are
long and pointed, tail short, lower portion of tibias naked,
hind toe very small, and the fore toes with a membra-
nous margin. They are known as Sandpipers.

The Gray-back or Robin Snipe, T. canntns, Linn., of
Eastern North America and Europe, is ten inches long,
and the wing six and a half inches.

Cooper's Sandpiper, T. Cooperi, Baird, of Long Island,
is rather smaller than the preceding.

GRALLATORES: SCOLOPACID^E. 259

The Purple Sandpiper, T. maritima, Briinnich, of East-
ern North America and Europe, is eight to nine inches
long, and the wing five inches.

The Curlew Sandpiper, T. subarquata, Temm., of the
Eastern hemisphere, and rare on the Atlantic coast of
North America, is about nine inches long, the wing five
inches ; bill slightly curved towards the tip.

The Red-backed Sandpiper, T. alpina, var. americanct,
Cass., of temperate North America, is eight and a half
inches long, and the wing five inches.

The Jack Snipe, T. maculata, Vieill., of all North Amer-
ica, South America, and Europe, is nine inches long, and
the wing five and a quarter inches ; upper parts brownish
black ; under parts white and ashy white ; breast spotted.

The Least Sandpiper, T. Wilsonii, Nutt, of all temper-
ate North America, is five and a half to six inches long,
and the wing three and a half inches or more.

Bonaparte's Sandpiper, T. Bonapartii, Schlegel, of North
America east of the Rocky Mountains, is seven inches
long, and the wing four and three quarters inches.

The Genus Calidris has the general characters of Trin-
ga, but is destitute of a hind toe.

The Sanderling, C. arcnaria, Illig., of North America,
South America, and Europe, is about eight inches long,
and the wing five inches.

The Genus Ercunctes has the feet semi-palmated. It
is represented by the Semi-palmated Sandpiper, E.pctri-
fcatus, Illig., of the temperate regions of North and South
America, which is six and a half inches long, and the
wing three and three quarters inches.

The Genus Micropalama has the basal membrane of
the toes more deeply emarginate than in the preceding
genus. It is represented by the Stilt Sandpiper, M.
Jiimantopus, Baird, of Eastern North America, which is
eight and a half to nine inches long, and the wing five
and a quarter inches ; legs long and slender.

26O VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

The Genus Symphemia has the bill very thick and
recurved.

The Wilier, 5. semipalmata, Hartl., of temperate North
and South America, is fifteen inches long, and the wing
eight and a quarter inches ; upper parts dark ashy ; rump,
upper tail-coverts, and under parts, white.

The Genus Glottis is represented by the Florida Green-
shank, G.floridanus, Bonap., which is eleven inches long.
The Genus Gambetta has the bill much attenuated to-
wards the tip, the outer toe webbed to the first joint, and
the inner web very short.

The Tell-tale, or Stone Snipe, G. mclanolcuca, Bonap.,
of North America, is fourteen inches long, and the wing
about eight inches ; upper parts cinereous ; under parts
white, with longitudinal stripes on the neck, and trans-
verse spots and stripes of dark on the breast and sides.

Fig. 137. The Yellow-Legs, G.fla-

vipes, Bonap., of Eastern
North America, is similar
to the preceding, but small-
er, being ten inches long,
and the wing six inches.
The Genus Rhyacophilus
has the bill curved upward
Yellow-Legs, c.flavipes, Bonap. slightly from the middle.
It is represented by the Solitary Sandpiper, R. solitarins,
Bonap., of North America, which is eight and a half
inches long, and the wing five inches.

The Genus Heteroscelus has the bill stout and com-
pressed. It is represented by the Wandering Tatler, H.
brevipes, Baird, of Washington Territory, which is about
ten and a half inches long, and the wing six and a half
inches.

The Genus Tringoides has the bill straight, shorter
than the head, and the tail much rounded. It is repre-

GRALLATORES : SCOLOPACID^.

26l

sented by the Spotted Sandpiper, T. macularius, Gray, of
temperate North America, which is seven and a half to
eight inches long, and the wing four and a half inches.

The Genus Actiturus is represented by Bartram's Sand-
piper or Field Plover, A. Bartramius, Bonap., of temper-
ate North America, South America, and Europe, which
is about twelve inches long, and the wing six and a half
inches ; general color above brownish black ; under parts
yellowish \vhite. It prefers plains and cultivated fields.

The Genus Philomachus is represented by the Ruff,
P. pugnax, Gray, of Northern Europe, and accidental on
Long Island, which closely resembles the preceding one.

The Genus Tryngites has the wings very long. It is
represented by the Buff-breasted Sandpiper, T. rufcsccns,
Cab., of North and South America and Europe, which is
seven and a half to eight inches long, and the wing five
and a half inches. It prefers plains and fields.

The Genus Limosa
Godwits has the
bill lengthened, slen-
der, and curving gen-
tly upwards. It is
represented by the
Marbled Godwit, L.
fedoa, Ord, of North
and South America,
which is eighteen
inches long, and the
wing nine inches ; and

the Hudsonian God- Marbled Godwit, L. fedoa, Ord.

wit, L. hudsonicus, Sw., of Northern North America, which
is fifteen inches long.

The Genus Numenius Curlews has the bill very
long, and curved downwards.

The Long-billed Curlew, N, longirostris, Wils., of all

Fig. 138.

262 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

temperate North America, is about twenty-five inches
Ions, and the wing ten to eleven inches ; the curved bill

Fig. 139.

Long-billed Curlew, N. longirostris, Wils.

from five to eight inches long. The upper parts are pale
rufous tinged with ashy, every feather marked with brown-
ish black ; the under parts pale rufous, with longitudinal
lines of black on the neck and sides.

The Short-billed Curlew, N. hndsonicus, Lath., of the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, is eigh-
teen inches long, the wing nine inches ; and the bill three
to four inches long.

The Esquimaux Curlew, N. borcalis, Lath., of North
America, is thirteen and a half inches long, the wing eight
and a quarter inches ; the bill two and a quarter to two
and a half inches long.

RALLID^E, OR RAIL FAMILY. This Family comprises
waders, with a strong, compressed bill, compressed body,
rather short wings, and long toes. They live in marshes,
and are but little seen except by hunters and naturalists.

The Genus Rallus -- Rails has the bill rather longer
than the head, wings and tail very short. It includes
about twenty species, inhabiting all countries.

The King Rail, or Marsh Hen, R. elegans, Aud., of the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, in the

GRALLATORES : RALLID^E. 263

warmer parts, is seventeen inches long, and the wing six
and a half inches ; upper parts olive brown ; under parts
rufous chestnut.

The Clapper Rail, or Mud Hen, J?. crcpitans, Gm., of
the Atlantic coast, is about fourteen inches long, the wing
five and a half inches, and resembles the preceding.

The Virginia Rail, R. virginianus, Linn., of temperate
North America, is seven and a half inches long, and the
wing four inches ; upper parts olive brown, with longitudi-
nal stripes of brownish black ; throat white ; neck be-
fore, and breast, bright rufous ; abdomen and under tail-
coverts with transverse bands of black and white.

The Genus Porzana has the bill shorter than the head,
and straight. It contains about twenty species.

The Sora, or Common Rail, rig. 140.

P. Carolina, Vieill., of temper-
ate North America, is eight
and a half inches long, and
the wing four and a quarter
inches ; the upper parts green-
ish brown, with longitudinal
bands of black, and many

r ,i -.1 i_'j_. Common Rail, P. Carolina, Vieill.

leathers with narrow white

stripes at their edges ; the sides of the neck and breast
bluish ashy, with circular spots and transverse bands of
white upon the breast ; the bill greenish yellow ; legs
dark green. The female is similar, but duller.

The Little Black Rail, P. jamaiccnsis, Cass., of the
Atlantic coast of North America and the West Indies,
five inches long, and the Yellow Rail, P. novcboracciisis,
Baird, of Eastern North America, about six inches long,
are additional species.

The Genus Crcx is represented by the Corn-Crake, C.
fratcnsis, Bechst, of Europe, Greenland, and accidental
in the United States, which is ten inches long ; color dark.

264 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Genus Fnlica Coots has the bill straight, com-
pressed, and extending into the feathers of the forehead,
forming a wide and projecting frontal plate; and the toes
margined with semicircular lobes.

The Coot, F. amcricana, Gm., of temperate North Amer-
ica, is fourteen inches long, and the wing seven inches.

The Genus Gallinula Gallinules is distinguished
from Fnlica by the absence of lobes on the toes.

The Florida Gallinule, G. galcata, Bonap., of the warmer
parts of America, is twelve and a half inches long ; the
frontal plate large, terminating square on the top of the
head ; the head, neck, and under parts dark bluish-cine-
reous ; upper parts brownish olive. The frontal plate and
bill are bright red tipped with yellow.

Fig I4I The Purple Gallinule,

G. martinica, Lath., of
the Southern States and
northward, is twelve and
a half inches long, and
the wing seven inches ;
head and under parts
bluish purple ; lower

Purple Gallinule, G. martinica. Lath. -i i ,

tail-coverts white ; up-
per parts dark olive green ; bill bright red tipped with
yellow ; frontal plate blue, and legs yellow.

SUB-SECTION VII.

THE ORDER OF NATATORES, OR SWIMMERS.

THE Order of Natatores comprises birds which are
especially fitted for aquatic life. Their plumage is thick
and firm, toes webbed to the claws, tibiae feathered to near
the tarsal joint, the hind toe usually elevated, and rather
small. They all swim well, and most of them dive freely.
This group may be divided into two Sub-Orders, An-

NATATORES : ANATID^E. 265

seres, which have the bill with transverse lamellae along
the edges ; and Gaviae, which have the bill without lamellae.
The first of these is represented by the great group of
Anatidas.

ANATID.E, OR DUCK FAMILY. This family comprises
swimming birds whose jaws have transverse lamellae, the
upper mandible ending in an obtuse rounded nail, and a
groove running along both jaws to the nail. They are
numerous, and found in all parts of the world.

The Genus Cygnus Swans has the neck very long.

The American Swan, C. aincricanus, Sharp., of North
America, is fifty-five inches long, and the wing twenty-
two inches; the adult pure white, the bill and legs black;
the tail has twenty feathers. The young are brown.

The Trumpeter Swan, C. buccinator, Rich., of Western
North America, is sixty inches long, and the wing twenty-
four inches; the adult pure white, the bill and legs black;
the tail has twenty-four feathers. Its notes are more
sonorous than those of the preceding.

The Red-billed Swan, Anas olor, Gm., and the Black-
billed Swan, A. cygnus, Gm., belong to Europe. The
former is the original of the domestic Swan.

The notion that the Swan sings on the approach of
death is erroneous.

The Genus Anscr has the lamellae of the upper man-
dible projecting below the edge as points.

The Snow Goose, A. Jiypcrborens, Pallas, of North Amer-
ica, is thirty inches long, and the wing about sixteen and
a half inches ; color pure white ; bill and legs red.

The White-fronted Goose, A. Gambclli, Hartl, of North
America, is twenty-eight inches long, and the wing about
sixteen and one third inches ; color grayish ; forehead
white, bill and legs red ; the tail has sixteen feathers.

The Brown-fronted Goose, A.frontalis, Baird, of the in-
terior of North America, closely resembles the preceding.

12

266 VERTEBRATES: BIRDS.

The Genus Bcrnicla has the teeth of the upper man-
dible mainly concealed ; bill and legs black.

The Canada or Wild Goose, B. canadensis, Boie, of
North America, is thirty-five inches long, and the wing
eighteen inches ; the upper parts brownish, the lower
parts lighter ; the head, neck, bill, and feet black. It
spends the winter in the warmer regions, but in spring
moves northward in large flocks. Their spring migra-
tions usually take place from the 2Oth of March to the
last of April, but are wholly dependent upon the state
of the season. They breed at the North, and linger there
till the hard frosts warn them that the lakes and streams
will soon be frozen over.

The White-cheeked Goose, B. leitcopareia, Cass., of the
western coast of America, has the general appearance of
the preceding, but is darker and somewhat smaller.

Hutchins's Goose, B. Hutchinsii, Bonap., of the north-
ern and western portions of North America, closely re-
sembles B. canadensis, but is only thirty inches long.

The Brant, B. brcnta, Steph., of the Atlantic coast of
North America and Europe, is twenty-three and a half
inches long, the wing twelve and three quarters inches ;
bill, feet, head, neck, and fore part of the body, primary
quills and tail, black. On each side of the neck there
is a small white crescent streaked with black.

The Black Brant, B. nigricans, Cass., of the Pacific
coast of North America, is twenty-nine inches long, and
the wing nearly fourteen inches.

The Barnacle Goose, B. Icucopsis, Linn., of Europe, is
twenty-eight inches long, and the wing seventeen inches.

The Genus Chloephaga is represented by the Painted
Goose, C. canagica, Bonap., of the Aleutian Islands.

The Genus Deudrocygna has the bill much longer than
the head, neck and legs very long, and feet very large.

The Long-legged Duck, D. autumnalis, Eyton, of the

NATATORES I ANATID^E. 267

Rio Grande, is twenty-four inches long, and the wing
ten inches.

The Brown Tree-duck, D. fulva, Burm., of California
and southward, is twenty inches long, and the wing over
nine inches.

Anatinae, or River Ducks, have the legs shorter than
geese, the lobe of the hind toe narrow, and much re-
stricted. Eight genera are found in North America.

The Genus Anas has the bill broad, depressed, longer
than the head, and the tail pointed.

The Mallard, or Green-Head, A. boschas, Linn., of North
America and most of the Old World, is twenty-three inches
long, and the wing eleven inches ; the head and neck
bright grass-green, with a violet gloss ; a white ring
around the middle of the neck, below which and on the
fore part and sides of the breast the color is dark brown-
ish-chestnut ; speculum purplish violet, terminated with
black. This is the original of the common domestic duck.

The Black Duck, A. obscura, Gm., of the Atlantic region
of North America, is twenty-two inches long, and the
wing twelve inches ; general color bluish brown.

The Genus Dafila has the bill long and narrow, tail
pointed. It is represented by the Pintail, or Sprigtail,
D. acuta, Jenyns, of North America and Europe, which
is thirty inches long, and the wing eleven inches.

The Genus Ncttion has the bill unusually narrow.

The Green-winged Teal, N. carolinensis, Baird, of North
America, accidental in Europe, is fourteen inches long,
and the wing seven and two fifths inches ; and distin-
guished by the broad rich green speculum.

The English Teal, N. crccca, Kaup., of Europe, acci-
dental in North America, is similar to the preceding.

The Genus Qucrquedula has the bill narrow, and a
little longer than the foot.

The Blue-winged Teal, Q. discors, Steph., of North

268 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

America east of the Rocky Mountains, is sixteen inches
long, and the wing over seven inches.

The Red-breasted Teal, Q. cyanoptera, Cass., of West-
ern North America, is nearly eighteen inches long, and
the wing seven and a half inches.

The Genus Spatula has the bill much longer than the
head, and spatulate, widening to the end.

The Shoveller, or Spoonbill, vS. clypcata, Boie, of North
America and Europe, is twenty inches long, the wing nine
and a half inches.

The Genus Ckaulelasmus has the bill as long as the
head, and the lamellae distinctly visible below the edges.
It is represented by the Gadwall, or Gray Duck, C. strcpe-
rus, Gray, of North America and Europe, which is twenty-
two inches long, the wing ten and a half inches.

The Genus Marcca has the bill shorter than the head ;
tail pointed ; upper parts finely waved with black and
gray or reddish brown ; under parts white.

The Baldpate, or American Widgeon, M. amencana,
Steph., of North America, is nearly twenty-two inches
long, and the wing eleven inches ; head and neck gray-
ish, spotted and banded with black, a broad green patch
around and behind the eye, and top of the head nearly
white.

The English Widgeon, M. pcndopc, Bonap., of the Old
World, and accidental in North America, is twenty inches
long, and the wing over ten and a half inches ; head and
neck reddish brown, and top of the head cream-color.

The Genus Aixhas the bill high at the base, the head
crested, claws short, curved, and very sharp. It com-
prises the most beautiful ducks.

The Summer or Wood Duck, A. sponsa, Boie, of North
America, is nineteen inches long, and the wing nine and
a half inches. Its exquisitely beautiful plumage surpasses
description. It builds its nest in a hollow tree or limb.

NATATORES I ANATID^E.

269

If the nest is
over water, the
young, the mo-
ment they are
hatched, drop
into the wa-
ter ; but if at
a distance from
it, they are al-
lowed to fall on
the ground, and
are then led, or
carried, to the
water by the

Summer or Wood Duck, A. sponsa, Boie.

Fuligulinae, or Sea Ducks, differ from the Anatinae in
having a large lobe or membranous flap attached to the
under surface of the hind toe. They are found inland
as well as on the sea-coast.

The Genus Fulix has the bill as long as the feet ; head,
neck, body anterior to the shoulders, tail and tail-coverts,
rump, and lower back, black ; tail rounded, of fourteen
feathers ; under parts white, finely waved with black be-
hind and on the sides.

The Big Black-Head, or Scaup Duck, F. marila, Baird,
of North America and Europe, is twenty inches long, and
the wing nine inches ; speculum white. The female has
the head brown.

The Little Black-Head, or Blue-Bill, F. affinis, Baird, of
North America and Europe, is sixteen and a half inches
long, the wing eight inches ; similar to the preceding.

The Ring-necked Duck, F. collaris, Baird, of North
America and accidental in Europe, is eighteen inches
long, and the wing eight inches, and is distinguished by
a chestnut collar around the middle of the neck.

2/0

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Genus Ay thy a comprises two American species.

The Red-Head, A. americana, Bonap., of North Amer-
ica, is twenty and a half inches long, and the wing nine
and a half inches ; the head and neck for more than half
its length brownish red.

The Canvas-Back, A. vallisneria, Bonap., of all North
America, is twenty inches long, and the wing about nine
and one third inches ; head and neck chestnut ; body

Fig. 143.

==s>qMpi''g^

Canvas- Back, A. vallisneria, Bonap.

anterior to the shoulders, the lower back, rump, and tail-
coverts, black ; under parts white ; scapulars and inter-
scapulars white, finely dotted with black in transverse lines.

The Genus Buccphala has the bill shorter than the head,
and the tail with sixteen feathers.

The Golden-Eye, or Whistle- Wing, B. americana, Baird,
of North America, is eighteen and three quarters inches
long, and the wing eight and a half inches ; the head and
upper neck glossy green ; a white patch before the eye.

Barrow's Golden-Eye, B. islandica, Baird, of Northern
North America, is twenty-two and a half inches long,
and the wing nine and a half inches.

The Butter-Ball, or Dipper, B. albcola, Baird, of North
America, is fifteen inches long, the wing over six and a

NATATORES: ANATID^E. 2/1

half inches ; a broad patch on each side of the head,
lower neck, and under parts, white.

The Genus Histrioniciis has the bill very small, and a
membranous lobe at its base ; the tail pointed, and with
fourteen feathers.

The Harlequin Duck, H. torqnatus, Bonap., of Northern
North America, is seventeen and a half inches long, and
the wing nearly seven and three quarters inches ; general
color bluish, under parts dull brownish. There are two
white spots on the side of the neck, two on the wings,
one on each side of the base of the tail, and the scapulars
and tertials are marked with white, and the secondaries
have a violet-blue speculum.

The Genus Harclda has the bill shorter than the head,
and the tail pointed, with fourteen feathers.

The Long-Tail, or Old- Wife, H. glacialis, Leach, of the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, and of Eu-
rope, is about twenty-one inches long, the wing nearly
nine inches ; general color blackish ; under parts whitish ;
tail eight inches in length.

The Genus Camptol&imis has the bill broad, feathers
of the cheek stiffened, and tail rather pointed. It is rep-
resented by the Labrador Duck, C. labmdorius, Gray, of
the northeastern coast of North America, which is about
twenty-four inches long, and the wing nearly nine inches.

The Genus Mclanctta is represented by the White-
winged Coot, or Velvet Duck, AT. velvctina, Baird, which
is twenty-one and a half inches long, and the wing about
eleven and one third inches ; color black, with a small
white patch round the eye, and a large white speculum
upon the wing. The female is brown.

The Genus Pelionctta contains two American species.

The Sea Coot, or Surf Duck, P. pcrspidllata, Kaup, is
nineteen inches long, and the wing nearly nine and a
half inches ; color black, a triangular white patch on the

2/2 VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

top of the head, and one on the nape ; bill red. The
female is brown, sides and under parts whitish.

The Long-billed Scoter, P. Trowbridgii, Baird, of
Southern California, is much like the preceding.

The Genus Oidcmia has the bill much swollen at the
base, and the terminal portion much depressed, and very
broad. The Scoter, O. amcricana, Sw., of the coast of
North America, is nearly twenty-four inches long, and
the wing over nine inches ; color black. The Huron
Scoter, O. bimaculata, Baird, of Lake Huron, is eighteen
and a half inches long, and the wing ten and a half inches.

The Genus Somatcria has the bill much compressed,
tapering, and terminated by an enormous nail.

The Eider Duck, >S. mollissima, Leach, of the Atlantic
and Arctic coasts, is twenty-six inches long, the wing
about eleven and a quarter inches ; prevailing color white ;
under parts, rump, tail, quills, and stripe above the eye,
black. It is an expert diver, often going down in search
of food eight or ten fathoms. The celebrated eider-down
is obtained from the nest of this species, the birds having
plucked it from their breasts to place around their eggs.

The King Eider, 5. spcctabilis, Leach, of the Arctic
regions, is twenty-one and a half inches long, and the
wing nearly ten and three quarters inches ; colors black
and white. The females of both these species are mainly
brown.

The Pacific Eider, ,5". V-nigm, Gray, has a V-shaped
mark on the chin.

The Genus Erismatura has the bill much depressed
and bent upwards ; tail of eighteen very stiff feathers.

The Ruddy Duck, E. rubida, Bonap., of North Amer-
ica, is sixteen inches long, and the wing about six inches ;
chestnut-red above, grayish white below.

The Black Masked Duck, E. dominica, Eyton, of Lake
Champlain, is an additional species.

NATATORES : ANATIDjE. 2/3

The Genus Mcrgus has the bill very narrow, slender,
longer than the head, and conspicuously serrated.

The Sheldrake, Goosander, or Fish Duck, M. ameri-
canus, Cass., of North America, is twenty-six and a half
inches long, and the wing eleven inches ; the male is
without a conspicuous crest, the head and neck green,
fore part of the back black ; lower parts salmon-color.
The female has a depressed occipital crest ; head and
neck chestnut, upper parts ashy, lower like the male.

The Red-breasted Merganser, M. serrator, Linn., of
North America and Europe, is twenty-three and a quarter
inches long, the wing eight and three fifths inches ; head
and upper part of neck all round, dark green ; under
parts reddish white ; head with a conspicuous, pointed
occipital crest. The female has the head chestnut-brown,
body ashy above, and reddish white beneath.

The Genus Lophodytcs has the bill shorter than the
head, the serrations short, and the head with a very con-
spicuous, compressed, circular, erect crest.

The Hooded Merganser, L. cucullatns, Reich., of all
North America, is seventeen and a half inches long, and
the wing nearly eight inches ; the head, neck, and back,
black; the under parts, and centre of the crest, white.
The female has the crest shorter and more pointed, the
head and neck reddish brown.

The Sub-Order of Gaviae includes three great tribes ;
Totipalmi, comprising Pelicanidae or Pelican Family, Su-
lidae or Gannet Family, Tachypetidae, Phalacrocoracidae
or Cormorant Family, Plotidae, and Phaetonidae ; Longi-
pennes, comprising Procellaridae or Petrel Family, and
Laridae or Gull Family ; and Brachypteri, comprising
Colymbidae or Diver Family, and Alcidae or Auk Family.

PELICANID.E, OR PELICAN FAMILY. This Family com-
prises swimming birds which have the bill long, hooked at
the end, nostrils hardly perceptible, wings long, pointed,

12* R

2/4 VERTEBRATES I BIRDS.

and tail rather short. They have a pouch under the
lower mandible and opening into the throat, which is
capable of great distention. Their flight is heavy.

The Genus Pclicanus is the only one found in the
United States, where it is represented by two species.

The Rough-billed Pelican, P. erythrorhynchus, Gm., is
seventy inches long, and the wing twenty-four and a half
inches ; the prevailing color white.

The Brown Pelican, P.fuscus, Linn., of California and
Texas, is fifty-six inches long, and the wing twenty-two
inches ; bill thirteen and a half inches ; color dark.

SuLiD^E OR GANNET FAMILY. This Family comprises
swimming birds which have the bill rather long, straight,
strong, compressed, and tapering to the point, which is a
little decurved, and the nostrils hardly perceptible. The
wings are very long, tail long and cuneate.

The Genus Sula is the only one in North America.

The Common Gannet, ,S. bassana, Briss., of Labrador
to the Gulf of Mexico, is thirty-eight inches long, and the
wing nineteen and a half inches; general color white.
It feeds upon fish, and obtains them by plunging from
a height, often remaining under water for a minute or
more. This species breeds in immense numbers on the
rocky islands near the coast of Labrador.

The Booby Gannet, 5. fiber, Linn., of the Southern
coast of the United States, is thirty-one inches long, and
the wing sixteen and a half inches ; brown above ; white
below ; throat yellow.

TACHYPETID.E, OR MAN-OF-WAR BIRD FAMILY. This
Family is characterized by a very long, strong, acute,
hooked bill, and hardly perceptible nostrils. The wings
are exceedingly long, and the tail long and much forked.

The Genus TacJiypetes is represented by the Man-of-
War Bird, or Frigate Pelican, T. aquila, Vieill., of Florida
to California, which is forty-one inches in total length,

NATATORES : PHALACROCORACID^E AND PLOTID.E. 275

the wing twenty-five, and the tail eighteen inches long ;
the prevailing color brownish black. In swiftness and
power of flight this bird is not surpassed by any other.

PHALACROCORACID^, OR CORMORANT FAMILY. This
Family comprises swimming birds which have the tip of
the bill much hooked, acute, and the nostrils not per-
ceptible. They are abundant on the coasts of all coun-
tries, and breed on rugged cliffs and on trees, and feed
upon fish, which they obtain with great expertness.

The Genus Graculns comprises eight species.

The Common Cormorant, G. carbo, Gray, of Labrador,
is thirty-seven inches long, and the wing fourteen inches ;
the color bluish black, gular sac yellow, with a broad
white band at the base.

The Double-crested Cormorant, G. dilopJuis, Gray, of
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts ; the Florida Cormorant,
G. floridanus, Bonap., of the Southern States and of
the Mississippi ; the Mexican Cormorant, G. mcxicanus,
Bonap. ; Brandt's Cormorant, G. penicillatns, Bonap. ;
and the Violet-Green Cormorant, G. violaceus, Gray, of
the Pacific coast, are additional species.

PLOTID.E, OR DARTER FAMILY. This Family is char-
acterized by a long, straight bill, long wings and tail, and
short tarsi.

The Genus P lotus comprises four species, one in Amer-
ica and three in the Old World. They inhabit the warm
regions, and are found in flocks.

The Snake Bird, Darter, or Water Turkey, P. anhinga,
Linn., of the Southern coast of the United States, is
thirty-five inches long, and the wing fourteen inches ; the
general color greenish black.

PH/ETONID/E, OR TROPIC-BIRD FAMILY. This Family
is characterized by a long bill, long wings, tail with cen-
tral feathers extremely elongated, tarsi short.

The Genus Phcston is represented by the Yellow-billed

2/6

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

Tropic-Bird, P. flavirostris, Brandt, of Florida, which is
thirty inches long, and the wing eleven inches ; the gen-
eral color white, the wings banded with black.

PROCELLARID.E, OR PETREL FAMILY. This Family
comprises swimming birds which have the bill more or
less lengthened, compressed, deeply grooved, and appear-
ing as if formed of several distinct parts ; and nostrils
opening from distinct tubes. They are all oceanic.

The Genus Diomedia Albatrosses has the bill pow-
erful, much curved, acute, and the upper mandible grooved

Fig. 144

Sooty Albatross, D.ftdiginosa, Gm.

its whole length, and great extent of wing. The Wan-
dering Albatross, D. exulans, Linn., of the Pacific, is
forty-four inches long, and the wing twenty-four inches ;
color white, with narrow transverse lines of black above.
The Short-tailed Albatross, D. brachyiira, Temm., of the
North Pacific, is about thirty-six inches long, and the
wing twenty inches ; general color white. The Yellow-
nosed Albatross, D. chlororhynchns, Gm., of the Pacific,
is thirty-six inches long, and the wing twenty-two inches.

NATATORES: PROCELLARID/E. 27/

The Sooty Albatross, D.fuliginosa, Gm., of the Pacific
coast of Oregon and California, is thirty-four inches long,
and the wing twenty-one inches ; color sooty brown.

The Genus Procellaria Fulmar Petrels --has the bill
rather stout, and the lower mandible with a lateral groove.

The Gigantic Fulmar, P. gigantea, Gm., of the Pacific,
is thirty-six inches long, and the wing twenty inches.

The Fulmar Petrel, P. glacialis, Linn., of the North
Atlantic, is twenty inches long, and the wing thirteen
inches ; the back and wings bluish, under parts white.

The Pacific Fulmar, P. pacifica, Aud., of the Pacific,
closely resembles the preceding one.

The Slender-billed Fulmar, P. tmuirostris, Aud., of the
Pacific, is eighteen and a half inches long, and the wing
thirteen inches.

The Tropical Fulmar, P. mcridionalis, Lawr., of the At-
lantic, is sixteen inches long, and the wing twelve inches.

The Genus Daption is represented by the Cape Pigeon,
D. capensis, Steph., of the coast of California, which is
fifteen inches long.

The Genus Thalassidroma Stormy Petrels has the
bill short and slender. It comprises the smallest of web-
footed birds ; but they are able to contend with the most
terrific storms. While flying close to the water, they
project their feet, and thus give the appearance of walk-
ing upon its surface.

The Fork-tailed Petrel, T.fnrcata, Gould, of the Pacific,
is eight inches long, and the wing six inches. Hornby's
Petrel, T. Hornbyi, Gray, of the Pacific, is eight and a
quarter inches long. Leach's Petrel, T. Lcachii, Temm.,
of the North Atlantic, is eight inches long, and the wing
six and a half inches ; color sooty brown ; rump white.
The Black Stormy Petrel, T. mclania, Bonap., of the
coast of California, much resembles T. Lcachii. Wilson's
Stormy Petrel, T. Wilsoni. Bonap., of the Atlantic, is

2/8

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

seven and a quarter inches
long, the wing six inches ;
color dark sooty -brown,
rump white ; tail slightly
emarginate. The Stormy
Petrel, or Mother Carey's
Chicken, T.pelagica, Bona-
parte, of the Atlantic, is five
and three quarters inches

Leach's Petrel, T. Leackii, Temm. long, and the Wing five

inches; color grayish black above, sooty brown below,
rump white.

The Genus Frcgctta is represented by Lawrence's Black
and White Stormy Petrel, F. Lawrencii, Bonap., of the
Florida coast, which is eight inches long.

The Genus Pnffinus has the bill compressed near the.
end, and a straight spur in place of the hind toe.

The Greater Shearwater, P. major, Faber, of the Atlan-
tic, is twenty inches long, the wing thirteen and a quar-
ter inches ; brownish ash above, grayish white below.

The Sooty Shearwater, P. fuliginosns, Strick., of the
Atlantic; Mank's Shearwater, P. anglorum, Temm., of the
coast from New Jersey to Labrador; the Dusky Shear-
water, P. obscurns, Lath., of the Southern coast of the
United States ; and the Cinereous Petrel, P. cinercus, Gm.,
of the Pacific, are additional species.

LARID;E, OR GULL FAMILY. This Family comprises
swimming birds which have the bill generally shorter
than the head, straight at the base, more or less curved
at the tip, nostrils linear, and wings long and pointed.
They frequent the shores of all countries, and also wander
far inland. They swim with facility, but do not dive.
They feed upon fish, shell-fish, and other aquatic animals.

The Genus Stercorarius comprises the Skua Gulls, or
Jagers, hardy birds, about twenty inches long, of the north-

NATATORES : LARID^E. 2/9

ern regions of both hemispheres. They are piratical,
chasing other species and robbing them of their prey.

The Genus Lams Gulls has the bill strong, tail
nearly even, colors light, and head white.

The Glaucous Gull, or Burgomaster, L.glaucns, Briinn,
of the Arctic regions and southward, is thirty inches
long, with an extent of wing of sixty to sixty-five inches.
The Glaucous-winged Gull, L. glauccsccns, Licht, of the
northwest coast of North America, is twenty-seven and
three quarters inches long, and the wing sixteen and a
half inches. The White-winged Gull, L. Icncoptcrus, Fa-
ber, of Labrador to the Arctic regions, is twenty-six
inches long, and the wing seventeen and a half inches.
The Great Black-backed Gull, L. marinns, Linn., of the
Atlantic, is thirty inches long, and the wing nine inches.
The Herring or Silvery Gull, L. argcntatus, Briinn, of
the Atlantic coast and the interior of the United States,
is twenty-three inches long, the wing eighteen inches ;
the head, neck, under parts, rump, and tail, pure white ;
back and wings light pearl-blue. The Western Gull, L.
occidcntalis, And., of the Pacific, is twenty-five inches long,
and the wing seventeen inches. The California Gull, L.
calif oiiiicus, Lawr., of the Pacific, is twenty-two inches
long, and the wing sixteen and a half inches. The Ring-
billed Gull, L. delawarensis, Ord, of North America, is
twenty inches long, and the wing fifteen inches ; bill yel-
low, with a dark brown band. Suckley's Gull, L. Sucklcyi,
Lawr., of the Pacific, is seventeen and a half inches long,
and the wing thirteen and three quarters inches.

The Genus Blasipus has the bill long and rather slen-
der. It is represented by the White-headed Gull, B. Heer-
manni, Bonap., of California, which is seventeen and a
half inches long, and the wing thirteen and a half inches.

The Genus Chroicocephalus has the bill rather slender
and much compressed, wings long, narrow, and tail usually

280

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

even. The colors are mainly dark above and light be-
low, and these are in beautiful contrast. In spring and
summer the head is dark, but in winter white. Five
species belong to North America. The Laughing Gull,
C. atricilla, Linn., of New England to Texas, is seventeen
inches long, the wing thirteen inches. Bonaparte's Gull,
C. Philadelphia, Lawr., of all North America, is fourteen
and a half inches long, the wing ten and a half inches.

TheGenus^z>.5Y? comprises the Kittewakes, of the north-
ern regions, which are fourteen to seventeen inches long.
The Genus PagopJiila Ivory Gulls has the webs
of the feet indented. The gulls of this genus are Arctic,
found far from land, are about eighteen or nineteen inches
long, and mostly pure white.

The Genus RJiodostetJda contains the Wedge-tailed Gull,
R. rosca, Jard., of the Arctic regions, which is fourteen
inches long, and the wing ten and a half inches.

The Genus Creagnts contains the Swallow-tailed Gull,
C.furcatus, Bon., of California ; and Xema the Fork-tailed
Gull, X. Sabinii, Bon., of the North Atlantic, which is thir-
teen and a half inches long, and the wing eleven inches.
Fig 146 The Genus Sterna comprises

the Terns, which have the bill
slender, wings long and pointed,
tail long and forked. They are
generally white or light below ;
black, and bluish or bluish gray,
above. They feed upon small
marine animals, which they dart
down upon. Fourteen or more
species are found on the coasts
of North America. The Marsh
Tern, 5. aranca, Wils., of the
Atlantic coast as far north as
Connecticut, is nearly fourteen

NATATORES: COLYMBID^E. 28 1

inches long. The Caspian Tern, 5. caspia, Pallas, of New
Jersey and northward, is twenty-one and a half inches
long. The Royal Tern, 5. rcgia, Gamb., of the Middle
and Southern States, is twenty-one inches long. Tru-
deau's Tern, *S. Trudeauii, Aud., of New Jersey, is fifteen
inches long. Wilson's Tern, S. Wilsoni, Bonap., from
Texas to Labrador, is nearly fifteen inches long. The
Arctic Tern, 5". macroura, Naum., of the coast of New
England and northward, is fourteen and a half inches
long. The Roseate Tern, 5. paradisca, Brtinn, from New
York to Florida, is sixteen inches long. The Least Tern,
S.frenata, Gamb., of North America, is eight and three
quarters inches long. The Short-tailed Tern, S.plumbca,
Wils., of North America, is nine and a half inches long.

The Genus Rhynchops has the lower mandible longer
than the upper. The Black Skimmer, R. nigra, Linn., of
the Atlantic, is nineteen inches long, wing fourteen and a
half inches. It skims its food from the surface of the water.

COLYMBID^:, OR DIVER FAMILY. - - This Family com-
prises birds which are remarkable for their power of
swimming and diving, and which move with difficulty
upon the ground.

Great Northern Diver, or Loon, C. torquattes, Briinn.

The Genus Colymbus Divers proper has the bill

282

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

compressed and acute, tail short and rounded. Birds of
this genus excel all others in diving and in making pro-
gress beneath the surface of the water. They are solitary,
keen-sighted, and wary.

The Great Northern Diver, or Loon, C. torquatus,
Briinn, of North America, is thirty-one inches long, and
the wing fourteen inches. The Black-throated Diver,
C. arcticus, Linn., of the northern regions, is about twenty-
eight inches long, and the wing twelve and a half inches.
The Red-throated Diver, C. scptentrionalis, Linn., of the

northern regions, is twenty-seven

Fig. 148.

inches long, and the

wing

eleven

and a half inches.

The Genus Podiceps Grebes
has the bill long, slender, and point-
ed ; the head in the spring orna-
mented with tufts. These birds fre-
quent lakes, rivers, and the sea-coast.
When alarmed, they remain beneath
the surface of the water, exposing
only the bill. Nine species belong
to North America, varying from thir-
teen to twenty-nine inches in length.
The Crested Grebe, P. cristatus,
Lath., of North America, is twenty-
three and a half inches long, the wing seven and three
quarters inches ; umber brown above, silvery white below.
The Genus Podylimbus has the bill short, and head
without ruffs. It contains the Pied-bill Grebe, P. podi-
ceps, Lawr., of North America, which is fourteen inches
long, and the wing over five inches.

ALCID/E, OR AUK FAMILY. This Family comprises
swimming birds which have the bill compressed and
pointed, hind toe usually wanting, wings very short, and
the legs placed far back. They are all marine, and con-

Crested Grebe,
P. cristatiis, Lath.

fined to cold
climates. The
Genus Alca-
Auks proper
has the bill ra-
ther long, flat-
tened, slightly
resembling a
knife-blade in
form, grooved
upon the sides;
the color dark
above, white
below.

The Great
Auk,* A. im-

NATATORES : ALCID/E.
Fig. 149.

283

the Arctic re-
gions, is about
thirty inches
long, and the
wing five and a
half inches ; it
is incapable of Penguin ' *-P's< Linn -

flight. The Razor-billed Auk, A. torda, Linn., of the Arc-
tic regions, and southward to New Jersey in winter, is
seventeen inches long, the wing eight and a half inches.

The Genus Aptenodytes comprises the Penguins of the
cold regions of the Southern hemisphere. They have
the wings very small, are incapable of flight, and go on
shore only to lay their eggs. The Great Penguin, A.pata-
gonica, Linn., is as large as a goose, slate-color above,
white below, with a large black patch in front, surrounded
by a yellow band.

* Professor Steenstrup reports that this bird has become extinct.

284

j s-

Puffin, M. arctica, Illig.

VERTEBRATES : BIRDS.

The Genus Mormon Puf-
fins has the bill short, com-
pressed, very high, and the sides
obliquely grooved. Four spe-
cies or more belong to the north-
ern portions of America.

The Arctic Puffin, M. arctica,
Illig., is eleven and a half inches
long, and the wing six and a
half inches. Puffins make their
nests in burrows, which they dig

to the depth of four to five feet in some cases. Each
lays but a single egg in a season.

The Genus Uria Guillemots has the bill rather
long, straight and pointed, wings short, and claws curved.
Six species belong to North America.

The Black Guillemot, U. grylle, Lath, of the North
Atlantic, is thirteen inches long, and the wing six and a
half inches ; color black ; a white patch on the wing.

The Genus Brackyrkampkus comprises the Short-billed
Guillemots. Six species inhabit the North Pacific.

The Genus Mergnllus has the bill short, thick, and
slightly lobed on its edges. It contains the Little Auk,
Sea-Dove, or Dovekie, M. alle, Vieill., of the North At-
lantic, which is seven and a half inches long, and the
wing four and a half inches ; breast and upper parts
brownish black ; under parts white.

Evidences of extinct species of birds exist in the rocks
of both this and other countries, and some species have
become extinct in comparatively recent times.* Tracks
of birds which lived in the Triassic Period are common
in the Sandstone of the Connecticut valley.

* The Dodo was a large bird, weighing about fifty pounds, and with rudi-
mentary wings, which in the seventeenth century inhabited Mauritius and
adjacent islands ; but of which there is now not even one perfect specimen

REPTILES. 285

SECTION III.

THE CLASS OF REPTILES.

THE Class of Reptiles comprises cool-blooded, ovipa-
rous vertebrates, which are covered with scales, and which
lay their eggs upon the land, and whose young closely
resemble the parents from the time they leave the shell.
They breathe by lungs, have a heart with two auricles
and one ventricle, and their digestion is slow. The rep-
tilian heart, at each of its contractions, transmits to the
lungs only a portion of the blood which comes to it from
the various parts of the system, and the remainder goes
into the circulation again without having been subjected
to respiration. Thus the blood of these animals is acted
upon by oxygen far less than in Mammals and Birds,
and their temperature is correspondingly lower, and their
habits more sluggish. The smallness of the pulmonary
vessels enables Reptiles to suspend the process of respi-
ration without arresting the progress of the blood ; and
hence they are able to remain much longer beneath the
surface of the water than any of the animals described
in the previous pages. The cells of the lungs are less
numerous, and larger, than in the higher animals. The
brain of Reptiles is comparatively small, and their sensa-
tions blunt. They continue to live and exhibit voluntary
motions long after losing the brain, and even after the,

in existence. It is allied to the Columboe. The Solitaire is another large
extinct bird of the same region.

The Moa, or Dinornis, a bird whose remains are found in New Zealand,
was twelve or fourteen feet high, and the tibial bone thirty-two inches long ;
and its egg, which has been found fossil, fills a man's hat !

The JEpyornis of Madagascar was, as its bones show, twelve feet high,
and its fossil egg is thirteen and a half inches long ! This and the Moa,
and some other extinct birds whose remains are found in the same regions,
are allied to the Struthionidse.

286

VERTEBRATES : REPTILES.

head is cut off. The muscles preserve their irritability
for a considerable time after being severed from the body,
and even the heart pulsates for hours after it is removed ;
nor does its loss prevent the animal from moving about.
The vertebrae of Reptiles are convex at one end and con-
cave at the other ; and their teeth, when set in sockets,
never have more than one prong.

This Class comprises three Orders, Testudinata or
Turtles, Sauria or Lizards, and Ophidia or Serpents. Some
writers also include the Batrachians in this group.

Fig. 151.

cv

SUB-SECTION I.

THE ORDER OF TESTUDINATA, OR TURTLES.

THE Order of Testudinata comprises scaly reptiles
which have a continuous shield upon the back, called

carapace, which is connected
by bridges to another shield
below, called plastron, the
whole forming a hard cover-
ing for the soft organs of the
body. This hard covering
is formed of the greatly ex-
panded ribs and sternum, to-
gether with ossified skin.
The head, neck, and tail are
the only movable parts of the
spinal column. The jaws are
covered with a horny sub-
stance, and destitute of true

Skeleton of a Turtle, plastron removed. teeth \ tOUgUC short, thick,

cv, cervical vertebra: ; ph, phalanges ; e, and COVCrcd With fleshy fila-

carpus; ru radius and ulna ; k, humerus; nOst ril S anterior, and

sc, scapula ; cl, clavicle ; co, coracoid

bone; dv, dorsal vertebrae; /, pelvis;/ near together ; CyCS with three

tibia and fibula ; if, tarsus ; . . . 1 1 . j

phalange, lids ; and lungs large, and

PS

femur

TESTUDINATA : EMYDOID.E. 28/

placed in the same cavity with the other viscera. The Tes-
tudinata are divided into two Sub-Orders, Chelonii or
Sea Turtles, and Amydas or Fresh-water and Land Turtles.
All lay their eggs in holes which they .dig in dry ground,
and, covering them with earth, leave them to hatch.

The Sub-Order of Amydas comprises Testudinina or
Land-Tortoise Family, Emydoidas or Terrapin Family,
Cinosternoidae or Mud-Turtle Family, Chelydroidae or
Snapping-Turtle Family, Hydraspidae, Chelyoidae, and
Trionychidae or Trionyx Family. The two families pre-
ceding the last belong to South America ; and the last
but one contains the curious turtle called Matamata.

TESTUDININA, OR LAND-TORTOISE FAMILY. - - This Fam-
ily comprises turtles which have the shell high and arched,
sternum broad and flat, and the legs and feet so arranged
that the body is raised free from the ground.

The Genus Xcrobatcs contains the Gopher, X. carolinus,
Ag., Tcstudo polypJicmus, Daudin, of the Southern States,
which has the shell fourteen to eighteen inches long, and
which burrows in the ground, digging holes four or five
feet deep. It will be observed that its popular name is
the same as that given to certain members of the Sciuridae.

The Genus Tcstudo contains the European Land-Tor-
toise, T. grcsca, Linn., six to ten inches long ; and the
Galapago or Indian Tortoise, T. indica, Linn., which is
three feet long, and is the largest land tortoise known.

EMYDOID/E, OR TERRAPIN FAMILY. This Family com-
prises turtles which Fig 1J2
have the shell highest
in the middle, and the
sternum flat, broad, and
long. It is the largest
of all the turtle fami-
lies, and its representa-
tives present so wide a NVood Tortoise, c.

288 VERTEBRATES: REPTILES.

range of differences, that Agassiz suggests its subdivision
into about five sub-families. Most of its members inhabit
bogs, marshes, still streams, and ponds. Some, however,
live upon the land ; nearly all are perfectly harmless.
Their food is both vegetable and animal. Their eggs
are more or less elongated, and covered with a shell
which is in most cases flexible. About a dozen genera
and about twenty species belong to North America.

The Genus Pseudemys, Ptyclicmys, Ag., contains the
Red-bellied Terrapin, Ps. serrata, Gray, Pt. rngosa, Ag.,
Emys rubriventris, Lee., of the Middle States, which has
the shell about eleven inches long ; the Mobile Turtle,
Pt. mobilcnsis, Ag., which has the shell fifteen inches
long ; Ps. concinna, Gr., Pt. concinna, Ag., of the South-
ern States, which has the shell about eight inches long,
dusky, and marked with yellow lines ; and Ps. Jderoglyphi-
ca, Gr., Pt. Jiicroglyphica, Ag., of the Middle, Western, and
Southern States, which has the shell over eight inches
long, olive brown, reticulated with brownish orange.

The Genus Trachemys contains three species, common
in the Southern and Western States, T. scabra, Ag.,
T. Troostii, Ag., and T. elegans, Ag.

The Genus Graptcmys contains the Geographical or
Map Turtles, of the Middle and Western States.

The Genus Malacoclemmys contains the Salt-water Ter-
rapin, M. palustris, Ag., E. terrapin, Holbr., of the salt-
water marshes from New York to South America, which
has the shell about seven and a half inches long.

The Genus Chryscmys contains the Painted Turtle,

C. picta, Gray, from New Brunswick to Florida, and west-
ward, which has the shell about six and a half inches
long, nearly black, with yellow lines, and the marginal
plates generally marked with bright red.

The Genus Dcirochclys contains the Reticulated Turtle,

D. reticulata, Ag., of the Southern States.

TESTUDINATA : CINOSTERNOID^. 289

The Genus Emys contains Blanding's Tortoise, E.
mekagris, Ag., Cistuda Blandingii, Holbr., from New
England to Wisconsin, which has the shell about eight
inches long, color black, with numerous yellow spots.

The Genus Nanemys contains the Speckled Tortoise,
N. guttata, Ag., of North America east of the Rocky
Mountains, which has the shell four and a half inches
long, black, dotted with orange ; and Calemys, Miihlen-
berg's Tortoise, C. Mnhknbergii, Ag., of the Middle States,
which has the shell about four inches long, dark, and an
orange patch on each side of the neck.

The Genus Glyptcmys contains the Wood Tortoise
(Fig. 152), G. insculpta, Ag., E. insculpta, Lee., of the
Northern States, which has the shell about eight inches
long, and presenting a beautifully carved appearance. It
is found in woods and fields.

The Genus Actineinys contains A. marmorata, the only
Emydoid known from the western slope of North Amer-
ica.

Fig. 153.

The Genus Cistudo contains the
Box Turtles, which have the plas-
tron composed of two parts that
are movable upon one axis, and
which can be brought into close
contact with the carapace, and

1 11 i Box Turtle > C - Virginia, Ag.

thus completely conceal all the

extremities of the animal. They are found in dry woods.
The Common Box Turtle, of the United States, C. vir-
ginea, Ag., is about six and a half inches long.

ClNOSTERNOID^E, OR MUD-TURTLE FAMILY. This

Family comprises turtles which are long and narrow, and
whose average size is less than that of any other family
of Testudinata. They are aquatic, but come out of the
water to bask in the sunshine, yet remain so near as to drop
in on the slightest alarm. They lay three to five hard-
13 s

2QO VERTEBRATES '. REPTILES.

shelled eggs, with a glazed surface. Three genera and
about half a dozen species are found in North America.

The Genus Aromochelys, OzotJieca, Ag., contains the
Musk Tortoise, A. odoratum, Gr., O. odorata, Ag., of the
United States, which has the shell three and a half inches
long, and emits a strong odor of musk.

The Genus TJiyrosternum contains the Mud Tortoise,
T. pennsylvanicum, Ag., Cinostcrnum pcnn. of authors, from
Pennsylvania southward and westward, which is three and
a half inches long, and emits a slight odor of musk.

CHELYDROID^E, OR SNAPPING-TURTLE FAMILY. This

Family comprises turtles which have the body high in

front, low behind, head large, neck large and long, both

Fig. 154- jaws strongly

hooked, the tail
long and pow-
erful, and the
sternum small.
They are a-
quatic, but are

Snapping Turtle, C. serpentina, Schw. VCrV freQUent-

ly found upon the land near the water. They are exceed-
ingly powerful and voracious, devouring smaller reptiles,
fishes, young ducks, and other animals. When molested,
they take the defensive, raise themselves upon their legs
and tail, open wide the mouth, and, forcibly throwing the
body forward, snap the jaws upon the assailant with fear-
ful power. They are fully a match for anything which
they are likely to meet with except man. The eggs are
numerous and spherical. Three genera are known, each
with a single species, and two of these are American.
The Genus Macrodemys, Gypodidys, Ag., contains the
Alligator Turtle, M. lacertina, Ag., of the Southern States,
which sometimes attains the weight of two hundred
pounds. It seizes fish, and, holding them down with its
feet, devours them somewhat as a hawk devours its prey.

TESTUDINATA: TRIONYCHID.E. 291

The Genus Chelydra contains the Common Snapping-
Turtle, C. serpentina, Schw., from Canada to Florida and
westward to the Missouri, which is found of all sizes,
from a few inches to a total length of four feet. It
has two long, flexible warts on the chin, and a crest of
wedge-shaped tubercles on the tail. This turtle exhibits
its ferocious disposition even before it is hatched.

TRIONYCHID^, OR TRIONYX FAMILY. This Family
comprises turtles which have the body fiat, circular,
slightly elongated, the shield more or less flexible, or
not completely ossified, neck and head long, the latter
terminated by a long leathery snout, feet broad and
webbed, five-toed, but with only three nails to each foot.
They inhabit principally the muddy bottoms of shallow
waters, often burying themselves in the soft mud, leaving
only the head exposed. They take breath from time to
time by carrying the snout above the water without even
moving the body. They feed upon small animals ; and
lay from twelve to twenty or more spherical eggs, with a
thick and very brittle shell. Three genera and about
half a dozen species belong to North America.

The Genus Platypcltis contains the Soft-shelled Turtle,
P.fcrox, Fitz., Trionyx fcrox, Sch., of the Southern States,
which attains sixteen inches in length ; color umber-
brown above, with dusky blotches ; below white, marked
by the red bloodvessels.

The Genus Amy da is represented by A. mutica, Fitz.,
of New York and southward and westward ; and Aspido-
ncctes, by A. spinifer, Ag., from Lake Champlain to the
Rocky Mountains.

The Sub-Order of Chelonii, or Sea-Turtles, comprises
Testudinata which are perfectly adapted for swimming,
or flying through the water, and which never leave the
sea except to lay their eggs, which are placed near the
shore in the sand. It contains Chelonioidae or Logger-
head Family, and Sphargididae, or Sphargis Family.

VERTEBRATES : REPTILES.

CHELONIOID^;, OR LOGGERHEAD FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises turtles whose general form is something
like a heart flattened on one side, and furnished in front
with a pair of large flat, wing-like, scaly flippers, and be-
hind with a pair of scaly rudders.

The Genus Chelonia contains the Green Turtles. The
Green Turtle, C. mydas, Schw., of the warm parts of the
Atlantic coast of America, attains a weight of two hun-
dred to three hundred pounds, or more. It is highly
prized for food, and great numbers are caught on shore
at night, as they come there to deposit their eggs.

The G&xmsEretmockelys contains the Tortoise-shell Tur-
tles. The Hawk-bill, or Tortoise-shell Turtle, E. imbri-
cata, Fitz., of the warm parts of the Atlantic, approaches

Fig- 155-

Hawk-bill Turtle, or Tortoise-shell Turtle, E. inibricata, Fitz.

the Green Turtles in size, and the plates of its shell fur-
nish the well-known and highly prized tortoise-shell.

The Genus TJialassoclielys contains true Loggerheads.

The Loggerhead Turtle, T. Caouana, Fitz., of the At-
lantic and Mediterranean, is the largest of all the turtles,
except Sphargis, to be hereafter noticed. Holbrook gives
the dimensions of one specimen as follows : head twelve
and a half inches long and ten wide, shell forty-two inches

SAURIA. 293

long and thirty-four wide, and sternum twenty-eight inches
long. It is frequently seen in mid-ocean floating upon
the waves, apparently asleep.

SPHARGIDID.E, OR SPHARGIS FAMILY. This Family
comprises turtles whose general form is something like
that of a flattened pyramid, and the body is covered with
a thick coriaceous skin, instead of a hard shell. Spliargis
is the only genus, and is represented by 5. coriacea, Gray,
of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, which is the largest
of all turtles, attaining the weight of twelve hundred to
two thousand pounds, in some cases. One caught in
Chesapeake Bay had a total length of almost eight feet.

Fossil turtles are found in both continents.

SUB-SECTION II.

THE ORDER OF SAURIA, SAURIANS, OR LIZARDS.

THE Order of Sauria comprises scaly reptiles whose
body is destitute of a shell, much elongated, and the tail
generally long, and whose mouth is large, and armed with
teeth. With few exceptions, they have four feet, which
are generally furnished with nails. The ribs are mov-
able, partially connected to the sternum, and are raised
and depressed in respiration. The lungs generally ex-
tend far into the abdominal cavity. It comprises the
Crocodilidae or Crocodile Family,* Lacertinidae or true
Lizard Family, Iguanidae or Iguana Family, Geckotidae
or Gecko Family, Chameleonidas or Chameleon Family,
Scincoidae or Skink Family, Chalcidas or Glass-snake
Family, and many fossil reptiles, f

* Regarded as an Order by many authors.

+ The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous rocks, in some localities, abound
with the remains of extinct reptiles, and many of them, in the two latter
groups especially, are those of Saurians of the most wonderful, and, in
many cases, gigantic forms. The Megalosaurus was a terrestrial Saurian,
thirty feet long. The Iguanodon, herbivorous in its habits, was thirty feet

294 VERTEBRATES : REPTILES.

CROCODILID^E, OR CROCODILE FAMILY. This Family
comprises the Crocodile of the Nile and the Gavial of
the Ganges, bulky reptiles, that attain the length of
thirty feet, and the Alligators of America.

The Genus Alligator Alligators has the muzzle
broad, obtuse, and greatly resembling that of the pike.
The teeth are unequal, the fourth lower ones largest, and
entering into holes in the upper jaw, and the toes semi-
palmate. Alligators are found from the Carolinas to Para-
guay, and within these limits there are several species.

The Common Alligator, A. mississippiensis, Gray, of
the Southern States, attains the length of fifteen feet or

Fig. 156.

Alligator, A . mississippiensis, Gray.

more. It is exceedingly voracious, devouring all kinds
of animal substances, and is particularly attracted by fish,
muskrats, dogs, ducks, or other animals in motion.

long, the femur thirty-three inches in length. The Hylaosaurus was twenty
feet long ; and the Mosasaitrus, twenty-five feet. The Ichthyosauri were
ten to forty feet long, with paddles adapting them for swimming ; and the
jaws were in some cases six feet long, and the cavity for the eye fourteen
inches in diameter. The Plesiosauri were also swimmers, twenty-five to
forty feet long, with the neck long, snake-like, and containing twenty to forty
vertebra. The Pterodactyli were flying Saurians, a foot long, with a spread
of wing of about three feet. These strange forms, and others, represented
by many species, are found in England and on the continent of Europe.

SAURIA : LACERTINID^E AND IGUANID^. 2Q5

LACERTINID^E, OR LIZARD FAMILY. This Family
comprises scaly reptiles which have the head in the form
of a quadrangular pyramid with the apex in front ; tongue
thin, more or less extensible, and with its base in some
cases lodged in a sheath, and its apex always bifid ; body
and tail much elongated, the latter in some cases several
times the length of the former ; feet four, five-toed, and
armed with nails ; the scales beneath the body and around
the tail arranged in transverse parallel bands, and the
abdominal scales always larger than those upon the back.
They are the most agile, beautiful, and innocent of all
the Sauria. The larger members live upon the ground,
but many of the smaller ones upon trees. The species
are numerous.

The Genus Ameiva has the tail round, and the scales
of the belly broader than long. It contains the Six-lined
or Striped Lizard, A. Fig. 157.

sex-lincata, Cuv., of
the Southern States,
which is nine to ten
inches or more long,
dark brown above, and
with six yellow, longi-
tudinal lines ; abdomen Six-lined Lizard, A. sex-Uneata, Cuv.

bluish-silvery white. It is timid, harmless, quick in its
movements, runs swiftly, and feeds upon insects, which it
seeks at the close of the day.

The Genus Laccrta contains the Monitor, L. nilotica,
Linn., of the Nile, which is five or six feet long, and is said
to destroy the eggs of the crocodile. It is sculptured on
the ancient monuments.

louANiDjE, OR IGUANA FAMILY. This Family com-
prises scaly reptiles which are lizard-like in general ap-
pearance, but which have their tongue thick, fleshy, non-
extensible, and only emarginated at the tip.

296 VERTEBRATES : REPTILES.

The Genus Iguana has the body and tail covered with
small imbricated scales, the back furnished with a range
of spines, and throat with a pendent, compressed dewlap.

The Common Iguana, Ig. tubcrculata, of South Amer-
ica, is four to five feet long, greenish, the tail banded with
brown. It lives upon trees. Its flesh is used for food.

The Genus Draco comprises the Dragons of the East
Indies. They have their first six false ribs extending out-
wards, and supporting a fold of skin, and thus forming a
sort of wing which acts like a parachute in sustaining
them as they leap from one tree or branch to another;
but which does not enable them to truly fly.

The Genus Anolius has the skin of the four external
toes developed beneath to form an oval disk ; the tail is
cylindrical and very long.

The Green Lizard, A. carolinensis, Cuv., of the South-
ern States, is six and three quarters inches long, golden
green above, and the abdomen greenish white. It is
very active, running up trees and moving from branch to
branch with swiftness. It is common about the garden
and buildings, frequently entering the houses, and some-
times moves over the tables and other furniture in search
of flies. It is able to walk upon the walls and ceilings,
and even upon the window-panes.

The Genus Tropidolepis is represented by T. undnlattis,
of the United States south of the forty-third parallel.
It is over seven inches long, grayish above with trans-
verse, undulating black bands, which have their posterior
margins marked with white. Below, on each side of the
abdomen, is a band of green, surrounded with black ; and
a light central band forms a cross with a similarly colored
transverse band between the anterior extremities. It in-
habits pine-forests, runs to the tops of the tallest trees,
and feeds upon insects.

The Genus Phrynosoma Horned Toads has the

SAURIA: GECKOTID/E AND CHAMELEONID.E. 297

head short, rounded in front, and bordered at the sides
and behind with spines ; the body short, oval, much de-
pressed, with a dentated margin at the flank, and covered
above with three-sided tubercles arising from small imbri-
cated scales. Several Fig. 158.
species are found in
the central and western
parts of North America.
The Horned Toad,
P. cornuta, Gray, from
Missouri to Texas, is

OVer four and a half Horned Toad, P. cornuta, Gray.

inches long, ash-color, marked with yellowish and dark ;
abdomen and thorax silvery white with dusky spots. It
moves with rapidity upon the ground, but never climbs.
It is sluggish in confinement.

GECKOTID^E, OR GECKO FAMILY. This Family com-
prises Saurians which have not the elongated, graceful
form of the preceding lizards, but are more or less flat-
tened, and their gait is a heavy kind of crawling. The
tongue is fleshy, and not extensible ; their jaws are fur-
nished with a range of very small teeth ; and their toes
have a flattened disk, which enables them to move even
on walls and ceilings. Many genera and species are
known in the warmer parts of both continents.

CHAMELEONID.E, OR CHAMELEON FAMILY. This Fam-
ily comprises lizards which have the body compressed,
skin roughened, tail round and prehensile, and feet five-
toed. The tongue is cylindrical, fleshy, and extremely
extensible ; teeth trilobate, and eyes large, but covered
with skin except a small hole opposite the pupil, and
possessing the faculty of moving independently of each
other. Their lungs are so enormous, that, when inflated,
their body seems to be transparent, a circumstance
which led the ancients to believe that these animals fed
13*

298 VERTEBRATES I REPTILES.

on air. They live upon trees, are excessively slow in
their movements, and often remain motionless upon a
branch for hours. The great size of their lungs is
probably the source of the power of the Chameleons to
change their color, which takes place according to their
feelings, and not in conformity with the hues of the bodies
on which they rest, or near which they pass. The very
extensible tongue has the extremity covered with a viscid
secretion ; and when the animal has marked an insect, it
darts forth this organ, and quicker than a glance of the
eye secures the prize for food. Eight or ten species or
more inhabit the warmer parts of the Old World.

SCINCOID.E, OR SKINK FAMILY. This Family com-
prises lizards which have the body cylindrical, and cov-
ered with smooth scales, variable in form and size, and
disposed in the form of a quincunx. The head is covered
with large, thin, angular plates ; the neck is of the same
size as the thorax ; tongue free, flat, and notched, and
not retractile into a sheath ; and the jaws are furnished
with closely set teeth. The body and tail seem to be one
continued and uniform piece. The genera and species
are quite numerous.

The Genus Plcstiodon has the head very large and
broad behind, but contracted in front of the eyes.

The Scorpion, or Red-headed Skink, P. crytliroccpJialus,
Holbrook, of the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States, is
twelve or thirteen inches long, olive brown above, the
throat and abdomen yellowish white, and the head above
bright red. It lives in hollow trees, and seldom comes to
the ground except for food and water. It is generally
timid, but when captured is very fierce, and bites severely;
but its bite is not venomous, as is generally believed.

The Genus Scincus contains the Five-lined Skink,
5. quinquelineatits, Baud., of the Southern States, which
is about ten inches long, the head pale red, with six ob-

SAURIA : CHALCID^:. 2QQ

scure white lines, and the body above olive brown, with
five pale white, longitudinal lines, and a black lateral
band ; and the Blue-tailed Lizard, S. fasciatns, Holbr., of
the United States, which is eight and a half inches long ;
the head bluish black, with six straw-colored lines ; body
bluish black, with five longitudinal, straw-colored lines ;
tail ultramarine blue, the throat and abdomen white.

The Genus Lygosoma contains the Ground Lizard,
L. lateralis, D. & B., of the southern and western portions
of the United States, which is four and three quarters
inches long, with a short head and very long tail ; the
body, tail, and legs of a bronze or chestnut color, throat
silver-white, abdomen yellow, and there is a broad, lateral
black band from the head nearly to the extremity of the
tail. It may be seen by thousands in the thick forests
of oak and hickory in Carolina and Georgia, after sunset,
when they emerge from their hiding-places to hunt for
worms and insects.

The Genus Seps comprises reptiles which have a longer
body and smaller feet than the Skinks ; and Bipcs, those
which differ from Seps in the absence of forefeet. Found
in South America and in the Eastern hemisphere.

CHALCID/E, OR GLASS-SNAKE FAMILY. This Family
comprises lizards whose body is elongated, serpent-like,
without feet, or with those but slightly developed, and
there is generally a deep groove along the flanks. The
genera placed under this family really represent several
families, and from their general resemblance to snakes
have been regarded by some authors as belonging to the
next order.

The Genus Ophisaums is